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Submit a ProposalLife Cycle Assessment Handbook
 | A Guide for Environmentally Sustainable Products Edited by Mary Ann Curran Copyright: 2012 | Status: Published ISBN: 9781118099728 | Hardcover | 625 pages Price: $195 USD  |
One Line Description
The first book of its kind, the LCA Handbook will become an invaluable resource for environmentally progressive manufacturers and suppliers, product and process designers, executives and managers, and government officials who want to learn about this essential component of environmental sustainability.
Audience
Engineers, managers, economists, government policy makers, and scientists throughout industry and economists and engineers working in sustainability, whether in industry or research.
Engineers, managers, economists, government policy makers, and scientists throughout industry and economists and engineers working in sustainability, whether in industry or research.
Description
As the last several decades have seen a dramatic rise in the application of LCA in decision making, the interest in the life cycle concept as an environmental management and sustainability tool continues to grow. The LCA Handbook offers a look at the role that life cycle information, in the hands of companies, governments and consumers, may have in improving the environmental performance of products and technologies. It concisely and clearly presents the various aspects of LCA in order to help the reader better understand the subject.
The content of the book was designed with a certain flow in mind. After a high level overview to describe current views and state-of-the-practice of LCA, it presents chapters that address specific LCA methodological issues including creating life cycle inventory, life cycle impact assessment, and capturing eco-systems services. These are followed by example applications of LCA in the agri-food industry; sustainable supply chain management; solid waste management; mining and mineral extraction; forest products; buildings; product innovation; and sustainable chemistry and engineering.
The international success of the sustainability paradigm needs the participation of many stakeholders, including citizens, corporations, academia, and NGOs. The handbook links LCA and responsible decision making and how the life cycle concept is a critical element in environmental sustainability. It covers issues such as building capacity in developing countries and emerging economies so that they are more capable of harnessing the potential in LCA for sustainable development. Governments play a very important role with the leverage they have through procurement, regulation, international treaties, tax incentives, public outreach, and other policy tools. This compilation of points to the clear trend for incorporating life cycle information into the design and development processes for products and policies, just as quality and safety concerns are now addressed throughout product design and development.
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As the last several decades have seen a dramatic rise in the application of LCA in decision making, the interest in the life cycle concept as an environmental management and sustainability tool continues to grow. The LCA Handbook offers a look at the role that life cycle information, in the hands of companies, governments and consumers, may have in improving the environmental performance of products and technologies. It concisely and clearly presents the various aspects of LCA in order to help the reader better understand the subject.
The content of the book was designed with a certain flow in mind. After a high level overview to describe current views and state-of-the-practice of LCA, it presents chapters that address specific LCA methodological issues including creating life cycle inventory, life cycle impact assessment, and capturing eco-systems services. These are followed by example applications of LCA in the agri-food industry; sustainable supply chain management; solid waste management; mining and mineral extraction; forest products; buildings; product innovation; and sustainable chemistry and engineering.
The international success of the sustainability paradigm needs the participation of many stakeholders, including citizens, corporations, academia, and NGOs. The handbook links LCA and responsible decision making and how the life cycle concept is a critical element in environmental sustainability. It covers issues such as building capacity in developing countries and emerging economies so that they are more capable of harnessing the potential in LCA for sustainable development. Governments play a very important role with the leverage they have through procurement, regulation, international treaties, tax incentives, public outreach, and other policy tools. This compilation of points to the clear trend for incorporating life cycle information into the design and development processes for products and policies, just as quality and safety concerns are now addressed throughout product design and development.
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Author / Editor Details
Mary Ann Curran, PhD, is an internationally recognized expert in the field of Life Cycle Assessment and Management. She began working on LCA methodology in 1990 at the US EPA’s National Risk Management Research Laboratory in Cincinnati, Ohio. An author of numerous papers and book chapters on LCA, she has been instrumental in advancing LCA awareness worldwide and has presented her LCA-related research at technical meetings around the world. She serves on the editorial boards of multiple journals on LCA and is a Fellow of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE).
Mary Ann Curran, PhD, is an internationally recognized expert in the field of Life Cycle Assessment and Management. She began working on LCA methodology in 1990 at the US EPA’s National Risk Management Research Laboratory in Cincinnati, Ohio. An author of numerous papers and book chapters on LCA, she has been instrumental in advancing LCA awareness worldwide and has presented her LCA-related research at technical meetings around the world. She serves on the editorial boards of multiple journals on LCA and is a Fellow of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE).
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Table of Contents
Preface xix
1 Environmental Life Cycle Assessment: Background and Perspective 1
Gjalt Huppes and Mary Ann Curran
1.1 Historical Roots of Life Cycle Assessment 1
1.2 Environmental Life Cycle Concepts 2
1.3 LCA Links to Environmental Policy 3
1.4 Micro Applications of LCA Rising 5
1.5 The Micro-Macro Divide 5
1.6 Macro Level LCA for Policy Support 6
1.7 Example Biofuels 7
1.8 Why Environmental LCA? 8
1.9 Overview of the Book 11
1.9.1 Methodology and Current State of LCA Practice 11
1.9.2 LCA Applications 12
1.9.3 LCA Supports Decision Making and Sustainability 13
1.9.4 Operationalizing LCA 13
References 14
Part 1: Methodology and Current State of LCA Practice
2 An Overview of the Life Cycle Assessment Method --Past and Future 15
Reinout Heijungs and Jeroen B. Guine
2.1 The Present-Day LCA Method 15
2.1.1 Goal and Scope Defi nition 17
2.1.2 Inventory Analysis 18
2.1.3 Impact Assessment 22
2.1.4 Interpretation 27
2.1.5 LCA in Practice 29
2.2 A Short History of LCA 30
2.2.1 Past LCA (1970 -- 2000): Conception and Standardization 30
2.2.1.1 1970 -- 1990: Decades of Conception 30
2.2.1.2 1990 -- 2000: Decade of Standardization 31
2.2.2 Present LCA (2000 -- 2010): Decade of Elaboration 32
2.2.3 Future LCA (2010 -- 2020): Decade of Life Cycle
Sustainability Analysis 34
References 37
vi Contents
3. Life Cycle Inventory Modeling in Practice 43
Beverly Sauer
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Study Goal 44
3.3 Scope 45
3.3.1 Functional Unit 45
3.3.2 Boundaries 47
3.4 Methodology Issues 55
3.4.1 Feedstock Energy 55
3.4.2 Multi-Output Processes 57
3.4.3 Postconsumer Recycling 58
3.4.4 Converting Scrap 60
3.4.5 Water Use 61
3.4.6 Carbon Tracking Considerations 62
3.5 Evolution of LCA Practice and Associated Issues 63
3.6 Conclusion 65
References 65
4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 67
Manuele Margni and Mary Ann Curran
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Life Cycle Impact Assessment According to ISO 14040 -- 44
Requirements 69
4.2.1 Overview 69
4.2.2 Mandatory Elements 70
4.2.3 Optional Elements 72
4.2.4 Interpreting an LCIA Profi le 73
4.3 Principles and Framework of LCIA 74
4.4 Historical Developments and Overview of LCIA Methodologies 78
4.5 Variability in the LCIA Models 86
4.6 State-of-the-Art LCIA 88
4.7 Future Development 94
4.7.1 Spatially-Differentiated Assessment in LCIA 94
4.7.2 Addressing Uncertainty and Variability in
Characterization Factors 95
4.7.3 Improving the Characterization of Resources 96
4.7.4 Integrating Water Use and Consumption in LCIA 97
4.7.5 Resources and Ecosystem Services Areas of Protection 98
4.7.6 Expanding Land Use Burdens on Biodiversity
in Ecosystem Services 99
References 99
5 Sourcing Life Cycle Inventory Data 105
Mary Ann Curran
5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Developing LCI to Meet the Goal of the Study 107
5.2.1 Considerations in Choosing Data Sources 107
5.2.2 A Word on Consequential Life Cycle Assessment 108
Contents vii
5.3 Types of LCI Data 109
5.4 Private Industrial Data 112
5.5 Public Industrial Data 112
5.6 Dedicated LCI databases 113
5.7 Using Non-LCI Data in LCAs 118
5.8 Creating Life Cycle Inventory using Economic Input/Output Data 134
5.9 Global Guidance for Database Creation and Management 135
5.10 Future Knowledge Management 136
5.10.1 Creating a Federal Data Commons in the US 137
5.10.2 Open-Source Models 138
5.10.3 Crowdsourcing 139
5.11 Conclusion 140
References 141
6 Software for Life Cycle Assessment 143
Andreas Ciroth
6.1 LCA and LCA Software 143
6.1.1 Introduction 143
6.1.2 Characteristics of LCA Software Systems 144
6.1.2.1 Web Tools versus Desktop Tools 144
6.1.2.2 Commercial Tools versus Freeware 145
6.1.2.3 Open Source versus Closed Source 146
6.1.2.4 General LCA Tools versus Specialised Tools
versus Add-Ons 147
6.1.3 Two Basic LCA Software User Types and their Needs 149
6.1.4 The LCA Software Market 150
6.1.4.1 Main LCA Software Systems 150
6.1.4.2 Other LCA Software Systems 152
6.1.5 Trends in LCA Software 152
6.1.5.1 Ideas that are No Longer Trends 153
6.1.5.2 Possible Future Trends 155
6.1.6 Outlook and Conclusions 156
References 157
Part 2: LCA Applications
7 Modeling the Agri-Food Industry with Life Cycle Assessment 159
Bruno Notarnicola, Giuseppe Tassielli and Pietro A. Renzulli
7.1 Introduction 159
7.2 Methodological Issues 161
7.2.1 Choice of Functional Unit 161
7.2.2 System Boundaries, Carbon Balance and Data Quality 165
7.2.3 Fertilizer and Pesticide Dispersion Models 167
7.2.4 Land Use and Water Use Impact Categories 170
7.2.4.1 Land Use 170
7.2.4.2 Water Use 173
7.3 Role of the Food Industry: Some Examples 174
7.4 Conclusions 177
References 178
viii Contents
8 Exergy Analysis and its Connection to Life Cycle Assessment 185
Marc A. Rosen, Ibrahim Dincer and Ahmet Ozbilen
8.1 Introduction 185
8.2 Life Cycle Assessment 187
8.2.1 Goal and Scope Defi nition 188
8.2.2 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis 188
8.2.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 188
8.2.4 Life Cycle Interpretation (Improvement Analysis) 190
8.3 Exergy and Exergy Analysis 190
8.3.1 Characteristics of Exergy 190
8.3.2 Exergy Analysis 191
8.4 Exergetic Life Cycle Assessment (ExLCA) 192
8.4.1 Linkages between Exergy Analysis and LCA 192
8.4.2 Rationale of ExLCA 194
8.4.3 ExLCA Methodology and Approach 195
8.4.4 Applications of ExLCA 196
8.4.5 Advantages of ExLCA 199
8.5 Case Study 199
8.5.1 System Description and Data Analysis 201
8.5.1.1 Hydrogen Production Plant Based on a Cu-Cl
Thermochemical Cycle 202
8.5.1.2 Nuclear Plant 204
8.5.1.3 Fuel (Uranium) Processing 204
8.5.2 Analysis 205
8.5.2.1 LCA of Overall System 205
8.5.2.2 ExLCA of Overall System 206
8.5.3 LCA and ExLCA Results and Discussion 208
8.6 Conclusions 211
Acknowledgements 212
Nomenclature 212
Acronyms 212
References 213
9 Accounting for Ecosystem Goods and Services in Life Cycle Assessment
and Process Design 217
Erin F. Landers, Robert A. Urban and Bhavik R. Bakshi
9.1 Motivation 217
9.2 Life Cycle Assessment Background 219
9.3 Ecologically-Based Life Cycle Assessment 220
9.4 Case Study Comparing Process-Based and Hybrid Studies
Based on EIO-LCA and Eco-LCA 222
9.5 Overview of the Role of Ecosystems in Sustainable Design 226
9.6 Design Case Study: Integrated Design
of a Residential System 227
9.7 Conclusions 229
References 230
Contents ix
10 A Case Study of the Practice of Sustainable Supply
Chain Management 233
Annie Weisbrod and Larry Loftus
10.1 Introduction 233
10.2 Why Develop an Integrated Sustainable Supply
Chain Management Program? 235
10.3 How Might the World-- Largest Consumer Products
Company Measure and Drive Sustainability
in its Supply Chains? 238
10.4 What is the State of P&G-- Supply Chain Environmental
Sustainability? 240
10.5 Why is the Scorecard Effective for Driving Change
and Building Environmental Tracking Capability? 245
10.6 What is involved with Social Sustainability in Supply
Chain Management? 247
10.7 Conclusion 248
References 248
11 Life Cycle Assessment and End of Life Materials Management 249
Keith A. Weitz
11.1 Introduction 249
11.2 Value of Applying Life Cycle Principles and Concepts
to End-Of-Life Materials Management 250
11.3 LCA of Waste Management Versus GHG
Inventory/Reporting, Sustainability Reporting,
and Other Environmental Initiatives 251
11.4 Summary of Key Life Cycle Procedures and their
Application to End-Of-Life Systems 255
11.4.1 Goals and Scope 256
11.4.2 System Function and Functional Unit 256
11.4.3 Boundary Decisions 256
11.4.4 Geographic Boundaries 259
11.4.5 Time Scale Boundaries 260
11.4.6 Key LCA Modeling Decision Points 260
11.5 Overview of Existing Waste Related LCAs 261
11.6 Using Waste Management LCA Information
for Decision Making 265
References 265
12 Application of LCA in Mining and Minerals Processing --Current
Programs and Noticeable Gaps 267
Dr. Mary Stewart, Dr. Peter Holt and Mr. Rob Rouwette
12.1 Introduction 267
12.2 The Status Quo 268
12.2.1 LCA Use in the Mining and Mineral
Processing Industry 268
12.2.1.1 Low Overall Business Priority 271
x Contents
12.2.2 Life Cycle Inventory/Life Cycle Assessment in Mining
and Processing 272
12.2.2.1 Corporate Initiatives 272
12.2.2.2 Association Initiatives 273
12.2.2.3 Supply Chain and Voluntary Initiatives 274
12.2.2.4 Market Positioning and Advocacy 276
12.2.3 Life Cycle Management 276
12.3 What is LCA and LCM Information Being Used for? 279
12.3.1 Internal Decision Taking 280
12.3.2 External Decision Taking 281
12.4 Gaps and Constraints 284
12.4.1 Methodological Considerations 284
12.4.2 Value Chain Structures 286
12.5 Conclusions and Recommendations 288
References 289
13 Sustainable Preservative-Treated Forest Products,
Their Life Cycle Environmental Impacts, and End of
Life Management Opportunities: A Case Study 291
Christopher A. Bolin
13.1 Introduction 291
13.2 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis 293
13.2.1 Forestry and Milling 293
13.2.1.1 Forestry 293
13.2.1.2 Milling 294
13.2.1.3 Properties of Wood 295
13.2.2 Preservative Manufacture and Treatment
of Lumber Products 296
13.2.3 Preservative-Treated Wood Product Service Life 299
13.2.4 End of Life Management 299
13.2.4.1 Landfi ll Disposal 299
13.2.4.2 Reuse 300
13.2.4.3 Reuse for Energy 300
13.3 Energy Reuse Considerations 301
13.3.1 Chemicals in Preservative-treated Wood 301
13.3.1.1 Lumber Containing Copper-Based
Preservative 301
13.3.1.2 Lumber Containing Boron-Based
Preservatives 301
13.3.2 Lumber Collection at the End of Service Life 302
13.4 Case Study Scenarios 302
13.5 Carbon Accounting, Impact Indicator Defi nition,
and Classifi cation 303
13.5.1 Carbon Accounting 303
13.5.2 Fossil Fuel Usage 304
13.5.3 Total Energy 304
13.5.4 Other Impact Indicators Assessed 305
Contents xi
13.6 Lumber Life Cycle Assessment Findings 305
13.7 Conclusions 308
References 308
14 Buildings, Systems Thinking, and Life Cycle Assessment 311
Joel Ann Todd
14.1 Introduction 311
14.2 Applying LCA to Buildings 314
14.2.1 Opportunities 314
14.2.2 Challenges 315
14.3 History and Progress in Applying LCA to Buildings 319
14.3.1 Databases, Tools, and Resources 319
14.3.1.1 AIA Environmental Resource Guide 319
14.3.1.2 BEES 320
14.3.1.3 US LCI Database 321
14.3.1.4 ATHENA Ecocalculator and Impact Estimator 321
14.3.1.5 Other Tools 321
14.3.2 International Standards and Codes 322
14.3.2.1 ISO 322
14.3.2.2 CEN TC350 322
14.3.2.3 ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189 for
the Design of High-Performance Green Buildings,
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings 323
14.3.2.4 International Green Construction Code (IGCC) 323
14.3.3 Assessment and Certifi cation Systems 324
14.3.3.1 BREEAM 324
14.3.3.2 LEED 325
14.3.3.3 DGNB 325
14.3.3.4 Green Globes (US) 326
14.4 Evolution and Future Applications to the Built Environment 326
References 327
15 Life Cycle Assessment in Product Innovation 329
Nuno Da Silva
15.1 Introduction 329
15.2 Background 330
15.3 What R&D is For 331
15.4 The Innovation Funnel 331
15.5 Idea Generation 332
15.6 Idea Assessment 334
15.7 Concept Development 335
15.8 Business Planning and Execution 337
15.9 Where to Focus --Management Framework 337
15.10 Sustainable Portfolio Management 338
15.11 Tools 340
15.12 Data 342
References 342
xii Contents
16 Life Cycle Assessment as a Tool in Food Waste Reduction
and Packaging Optimization --Packaging Innovation
and Optimization in a Life Cycle Perspective 345
Ole J ¸rgen Hanssen, Hanne M ¸ller, Erik Svanes
and Vibeke Schakenda
16.1 Introduction 345
16.2 Food Waste and Packaging Optimization
in a Life Cycle Perspective 346
16.3 Principles and Models for Optimal Packaging
in a Life Cycle/Value Chain Perspective 350
16.4 Case Studies on LCA of Food Waste and Packaging Optimization 354
16.4.1 Case Studies on Packaging Optimization and
Food Waste Reduction? 354
16.4.2 Case Study on Coffee Packing and Distribution 355
16.4.2.1 Packaging System and Effects of Implemented
Improvement Options 355
16.4.2.2 Effects of 20% Improvement in Strategies
for Packaging Optimization 356
16.4.3 Case study on Packing and Distribution of Whole Pieces
of Cheese 356
16.4.3.1 Optimization of Degree of Filling on Pallet
for Cheese Packaging 357
16.4.3.2 Effects of 20% Improvement in Strategies
for Packaging Optimization 358
16.4.3.3 Comparison of the Value Chain for
Whole Pieces of Cheese and Sliced Cheese
and the Corresponding Packaging 359
16.4.3.4 Effects of 20% Improvement in Strategies for
Packaging Optimization 360
16.4.4 Case Study on Salad Packing and Distribution 361
16.5 Discussion and Conclusions 363
References 366
17 Integration of LCA and Life-Cycle Thinking within the Themes
of Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 369
Shawn Hunter, Richard Helling and Dawn Shiang
17.1 Introduction 369
17.2 The Four Themes of Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 370
17.3 Life Cycle Assessment as a Tool for Evaluating
SC&E Opportunities 376
17.3.1 Importance of Life Cycle Thinking for SC&E 376
17.3.2 What is the Value of a Renewable Feedstock? 378
17.3.2.1 Natural Oil-Based Polyols 378
17.3.2.2 Sugarcane-Based Polyethylene 380
17.3.3 How Important is the Project Team-- Piece
of the Life Cycle? 381
Contents xiii
17.3.3.1 New Coatings Technology 382
17.3.3.2 LCA of Tetrahydrofuran Synthesis in
High-Temperature Water 383
17.3.4 What is the Return on Life Cycle Investment? 384
17.4 LCA --One Tool in the Sustainability Toolbox 385
17.4.1 Screening Sustainability Assessment Tools 385
17.4.2 Economic Evaluation 386
17.4.3 Site-Specifi c Assessment Tools 386
17.4.3.1 Environmental Impact Assessment 387
17.4.3.2 Risk Assessment 387
17.4.3.3 Social Impact Assessment 387
17.5 Summary 388
Acknowledgement 388
References 388
Part 3: LCA Supports Decision Making and Sustainability
18 How to Approach the Assessment? 391
Jos Potting, Shabbir Gheewala, Sbastien Bonnet
and Joost van Buuren
18.1 Introduction 391
18.2 Assessment Methods 393
18.2.1 Technology Assessment 393
18.2.2 Environmental Impact Assessment 394
18.2.3 Risk Assessment 396
18.2.4 Life Cycle Assessment 398
18.3 Comparison of Assessment Methods 400
18.4 Guidance for Assessment 405
18.5 Discussion and Conclusions 409
Acknowledgement 410
References 410
19 Integration of MCDA Tools in Valuation of Comparative
Life Cycle Assessment 413
Valentina Prado, Kristen Rogers and Thomas P. Seager PhD
19.1 Introduction 413
19.2 Current Practices in LCIA 415
19.3 Principles of External Normalization 416
19.4 Issues with External Normalization 417
19.4.1 Inherent Data Gaps 417
19.4.2 Masking Salient Aspects 417
19.4.3 Compensation 419
19.4.4 Spatial Boundaries and Time Frames 419
19.4.5 Divergence in Data Bases 419
19.5 Principles of Internal Normalization 419
19.5.1 Compensatory Methods 420
19.5.2 Partially Compensatory Methods 421
xiv Contents
19.6 Weighting 423
19.7 Case 1: Magnitude Sensitivity 424
19.8 Case 2: Rank Reversal 426
19.9 Conclusions 428
References 428
20 Social Life Cycle Assessment: A Technique Providing a
New Wealth of Information to Inform Sustainability-Related
Decision Making 433
Catherine Beno ®t Norris
20.1 Historical Development 433
20.2 Why Do Businesses Care? 435
20.3 Methodology 436
20.3.1 Defi ning Social Issues 436
20.3.2 The Framework 437
20.3.3 Typical Phases of a Study 441
20.3.3.1 Iterative Process of Social Life Cycle Assessment 441
20.3.3.2 Goal and Scope 442
20.3.3.3 Life Cycle Inventory 444
20.3.3.4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 444
20.3.3.5 Interpretation 445
20.4 SLCA and other Key Social Responsibility References
and Instruments 445
20.5 Conclusion 449
References 450
21 Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis 453
Alessandra Zamagni, Jeroen Guine, Reinout Heijungs
and Paolo Masoni
21.1 LCA and Sustainability Questions 453
21.1.1 What is Sustainability? 453
21.1.2 Life Cycle Analysis and Sustainability 455
21.2 A Framework for Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis 459
21.2.1 Broadening 461
21.2.1.1 Broadening of the Object of Analysis 461
21.2.1.2 Broadening of the Spectrum of Indicators 462
21.2.2 Deepening 466
21.2.2.1 Increasing Sophistication in LCI Modelling 466
21.2.2.2 Economic and Behavioral Mechanisms 467
21.2.2.3 Deepening LCA and Consequential LCA 468
21.3 Future Directions for Research 469
21.3.1 Aligning Environmental with Economic
and Social Indicators 470
21.3.2 Framing the Question 471
21.3.3 Modelling Options for Meso-Level and Economy-Wide
Applications 471
References 472
Contents xv
22 Environmental Product Claims and Life Cycle Assessment 275
Martha J. Stevenson and Wesley W. Ingwersen
22.1 Introduction 275
22.2 Typology of Claims: Three Different Claims per ISO Standards 277
22.2.1 Type I Ecolabels 277
22.2.2 Type II Environmental Claims 278
22.2.3 Type III Environmental Product Declarations 279
22.2.3.1 An EPD is a Document 279
22.2.3.2 An EPD is Primarily Based on LCA 279
22.2.3.3 An EPD is Developed by Following
a Product Category Rule -- 280
22.2.3.4 An EPD can Contain Information Beyond
the Scope of an LCA, Where Relevant to
that Product 280
22.2.4 Further Information on EPDs and PCRs 281
22.2.5 Reference Case Study on Dairy PCR & EPDs 281
22.2.5.1 Liquid Milk PCR 282
22.2.5.2 Granarolo Milk EPD 283
22.3 Other LCA-Based Product Claims 284
22.4 Other Relevant Environmental Information 285
22.4.1 Water Footprinting 286
22.4.2 Toxicity Risk Assessment 286
22.4.3 Ecosystem Services Assessment 287
22.5 Conclusion 287
References 288
Appendix 1: Global Update of PCR/EPD Activity 491
Appendix 2: Product Category Rules 497
Appendix 3: Environmental Product Declaration
for High-Quality Pasteurized Milk Packaged
in Pet Bottles 521
Part 4: Operationalizing LCA
23 Building Capacity for Life Cycle Assessment
in Developing Countries 545
Prof. Toolseeram Ramjeawon
23.1 Introduction 545
23.2 Status of LCA in Developing Countries 546
23.3 Challenges and opportunities 547
23.3.1 Challenges 547
23.3.2 Opportunities 549
23.4 Improving the Effectiveness of Capacity Building Initiatives 550
23.5 A Roadmap for Capacity Building in LCA
in Developing Countries 555
23.5.1 Introduction of Life Cycle Topics in
Educational Programs and Research Activities 556
23.5.2 Networking 558
xvi Contents
23.5.3 Setting up of a National Inventory Database
and Development of Tools to Set Up, Maintain
and Disseminate Data 558
23.5.4 Development of National Life Cycle
Impact Assessment (LCIA) Methodologies 559
23.5.5 Capacity Development to Apply LCA
in Industry and in Public Decision Making 559
23.5.6 Promotion of LCA Applications and Creating a Stock
of Success Stories and Dissemination 560
23.5.7 Policy Development 560
23.6 Conclusions 560
References 561
24 Environmental Accountability: A New Paradigm for
World Trade is Emerging 563
Ann K. Ngo
24.1 Introduction 563
24.2 The Paradigm Shift and LCA 564
24.3 International Trade and LCA 568
24.4 Behavior Change and LCA 570
24.4.1 The Role of Businesses 571
24.4.2 The Role of Governments 572
24.4.3 The Role of Consumers 576
24.4.4 The Role of NGOs 577
24.4.5 The Role of Academia 578
24.5 Challenges and Opportunities for a World Shifting
to Using LCA and Environmental Impacts as Components
of Regulation and Commerce 580
Appendix I 582
References 583
25 Life Cycle Knowledge Informs Greener Products 585
James Fava
25.1 Introduction 585
25.2 Situation Analysis 586
25.2.1 How Could We Set a River on Fire? 586
25.2.2 After an Early LCA Study, Coca-Cola Opted
to Challenge its Suppliers to Improve their Products
Rather than Simply Prohibiting the
Use of Certain Materials 587
25.2.3 Dueling Diaper Debates Fueled the Initial
Understanding that all Products have Impacts
that may differ in Nature, Scope, and Medium 587
25.2.4 Mercury found in Fluorescent Light Bulbs is not
the Predominant Source of Mercury that may
Enter the Environment as a Result of Light Bulb
Use and Disposal 588
Contents xvii
25.2.5 What if We would have Examined the Full Life
Cycle Impacts of MTBE Before it was Commercialized
to Reduce Smog in Cities? 590
25.2.6 Quality and Safety are Imperative Considerations
in the Design and Development of Every Product
Made Today, but It was not Always so 591
25.2.7 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) were Initially
Expensive and Data Collection was Time Consuming,
but Today GIS Systems are Commonplace in Most
Planning and Decision Support Functions 592
25.2.8 In the 1970s, Carnival Led the Way in Making Cruising
Affordable for the Masses 592
25.3 Diagnostics and Interpretation 593
25.4 Concluding Remarks 595
References 596
Index 597
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Preface xix
1 Environmental Life Cycle Assessment: Background and Perspective 1
Gjalt Huppes and Mary Ann Curran
1.1 Historical Roots of Life Cycle Assessment 1
1.2 Environmental Life Cycle Concepts 2
1.3 LCA Links to Environmental Policy 3
1.4 Micro Applications of LCA Rising 5
1.5 The Micro-Macro Divide 5
1.6 Macro Level LCA for Policy Support 6
1.7 Example Biofuels 7
1.8 Why Environmental LCA? 8
1.9 Overview of the Book 11
1.9.1 Methodology and Current State of LCA Practice 11
1.9.2 LCA Applications 12
1.9.3 LCA Supports Decision Making and Sustainability 13
1.9.4 Operationalizing LCA 13
References 14
Part 1: Methodology and Current State of LCA Practice
2 An Overview of the Life Cycle Assessment Method --Past and Future 15
Reinout Heijungs and Jeroen B. Guine
2.1 The Present-Day LCA Method 15
2.1.1 Goal and Scope Defi nition 17
2.1.2 Inventory Analysis 18
2.1.3 Impact Assessment 22
2.1.4 Interpretation 27
2.1.5 LCA in Practice 29
2.2 A Short History of LCA 30
2.2.1 Past LCA (1970 -- 2000): Conception and Standardization 30
2.2.1.1 1970 -- 1990: Decades of Conception 30
2.2.1.2 1990 -- 2000: Decade of Standardization 31
2.2.2 Present LCA (2000 -- 2010): Decade of Elaboration 32
2.2.3 Future LCA (2010 -- 2020): Decade of Life Cycle
Sustainability Analysis 34
References 37
vi Contents
3. Life Cycle Inventory Modeling in Practice 43
Beverly Sauer
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Study Goal 44
3.3 Scope 45
3.3.1 Functional Unit 45
3.3.2 Boundaries 47
3.4 Methodology Issues 55
3.4.1 Feedstock Energy 55
3.4.2 Multi-Output Processes 57
3.4.3 Postconsumer Recycling 58
3.4.4 Converting Scrap 60
3.4.5 Water Use 61
3.4.6 Carbon Tracking Considerations 62
3.5 Evolution of LCA Practice and Associated Issues 63
3.6 Conclusion 65
References 65
4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 67
Manuele Margni and Mary Ann Curran
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Life Cycle Impact Assessment According to ISO 14040 -- 44
Requirements 69
4.2.1 Overview 69
4.2.2 Mandatory Elements 70
4.2.3 Optional Elements 72
4.2.4 Interpreting an LCIA Profi le 73
4.3 Principles and Framework of LCIA 74
4.4 Historical Developments and Overview of LCIA Methodologies 78
4.5 Variability in the LCIA Models 86
4.6 State-of-the-Art LCIA 88
4.7 Future Development 94
4.7.1 Spatially-Differentiated Assessment in LCIA 94
4.7.2 Addressing Uncertainty and Variability in
Characterization Factors 95
4.7.3 Improving the Characterization of Resources 96
4.7.4 Integrating Water Use and Consumption in LCIA 97
4.7.5 Resources and Ecosystem Services Areas of Protection 98
4.7.6 Expanding Land Use Burdens on Biodiversity
in Ecosystem Services 99
References 99
5 Sourcing Life Cycle Inventory Data 105
Mary Ann Curran
5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Developing LCI to Meet the Goal of the Study 107
5.2.1 Considerations in Choosing Data Sources 107
5.2.2 A Word on Consequential Life Cycle Assessment 108
Contents vii
5.3 Types of LCI Data 109
5.4 Private Industrial Data 112
5.5 Public Industrial Data 112
5.6 Dedicated LCI databases 113
5.7 Using Non-LCI Data in LCAs 118
5.8 Creating Life Cycle Inventory using Economic Input/Output Data 134
5.9 Global Guidance for Database Creation and Management 135
5.10 Future Knowledge Management 136
5.10.1 Creating a Federal Data Commons in the US 137
5.10.2 Open-Source Models 138
5.10.3 Crowdsourcing 139
5.11 Conclusion 140
References 141
6 Software for Life Cycle Assessment 143
Andreas Ciroth
6.1 LCA and LCA Software 143
6.1.1 Introduction 143
6.1.2 Characteristics of LCA Software Systems 144
6.1.2.1 Web Tools versus Desktop Tools 144
6.1.2.2 Commercial Tools versus Freeware 145
6.1.2.3 Open Source versus Closed Source 146
6.1.2.4 General LCA Tools versus Specialised Tools
versus Add-Ons 147
6.1.3 Two Basic LCA Software User Types and their Needs 149
6.1.4 The LCA Software Market 150
6.1.4.1 Main LCA Software Systems 150
6.1.4.2 Other LCA Software Systems 152
6.1.5 Trends in LCA Software 152
6.1.5.1 Ideas that are No Longer Trends 153
6.1.5.2 Possible Future Trends 155
6.1.6 Outlook and Conclusions 156
References 157
Part 2: LCA Applications
7 Modeling the Agri-Food Industry with Life Cycle Assessment 159
Bruno Notarnicola, Giuseppe Tassielli and Pietro A. Renzulli
7.1 Introduction 159
7.2 Methodological Issues 161
7.2.1 Choice of Functional Unit 161
7.2.2 System Boundaries, Carbon Balance and Data Quality 165
7.2.3 Fertilizer and Pesticide Dispersion Models 167
7.2.4 Land Use and Water Use Impact Categories 170
7.2.4.1 Land Use 170
7.2.4.2 Water Use 173
7.3 Role of the Food Industry: Some Examples 174
7.4 Conclusions 177
References 178
viii Contents
8 Exergy Analysis and its Connection to Life Cycle Assessment 185
Marc A. Rosen, Ibrahim Dincer and Ahmet Ozbilen
8.1 Introduction 185
8.2 Life Cycle Assessment 187
8.2.1 Goal and Scope Defi nition 188
8.2.2 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis 188
8.2.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 188
8.2.4 Life Cycle Interpretation (Improvement Analysis) 190
8.3 Exergy and Exergy Analysis 190
8.3.1 Characteristics of Exergy 190
8.3.2 Exergy Analysis 191
8.4 Exergetic Life Cycle Assessment (ExLCA) 192
8.4.1 Linkages between Exergy Analysis and LCA 192
8.4.2 Rationale of ExLCA 194
8.4.3 ExLCA Methodology and Approach 195
8.4.4 Applications of ExLCA 196
8.4.5 Advantages of ExLCA 199
8.5 Case Study 199
8.5.1 System Description and Data Analysis 201
8.5.1.1 Hydrogen Production Plant Based on a Cu-Cl
Thermochemical Cycle 202
8.5.1.2 Nuclear Plant 204
8.5.1.3 Fuel (Uranium) Processing 204
8.5.2 Analysis 205
8.5.2.1 LCA of Overall System 205
8.5.2.2 ExLCA of Overall System 206
8.5.3 LCA and ExLCA Results and Discussion 208
8.6 Conclusions 211
Acknowledgements 212
Nomenclature 212
Acronyms 212
References 213
9 Accounting for Ecosystem Goods and Services in Life Cycle Assessment
and Process Design 217
Erin F. Landers, Robert A. Urban and Bhavik R. Bakshi
9.1 Motivation 217
9.2 Life Cycle Assessment Background 219
9.3 Ecologically-Based Life Cycle Assessment 220
9.4 Case Study Comparing Process-Based and Hybrid Studies
Based on EIO-LCA and Eco-LCA 222
9.5 Overview of the Role of Ecosystems in Sustainable Design 226
9.6 Design Case Study: Integrated Design
of a Residential System 227
9.7 Conclusions 229
References 230
Contents ix
10 A Case Study of the Practice of Sustainable Supply
Chain Management 233
Annie Weisbrod and Larry Loftus
10.1 Introduction 233
10.2 Why Develop an Integrated Sustainable Supply
Chain Management Program? 235
10.3 How Might the World-- Largest Consumer Products
Company Measure and Drive Sustainability
in its Supply Chains? 238
10.4 What is the State of P&G-- Supply Chain Environmental
Sustainability? 240
10.5 Why is the Scorecard Effective for Driving Change
and Building Environmental Tracking Capability? 245
10.6 What is involved with Social Sustainability in Supply
Chain Management? 247
10.7 Conclusion 248
References 248
11 Life Cycle Assessment and End of Life Materials Management 249
Keith A. Weitz
11.1 Introduction 249
11.2 Value of Applying Life Cycle Principles and Concepts
to End-Of-Life Materials Management 250
11.3 LCA of Waste Management Versus GHG
Inventory/Reporting, Sustainability Reporting,
and Other Environmental Initiatives 251
11.4 Summary of Key Life Cycle Procedures and their
Application to End-Of-Life Systems 255
11.4.1 Goals and Scope 256
11.4.2 System Function and Functional Unit 256
11.4.3 Boundary Decisions 256
11.4.4 Geographic Boundaries 259
11.4.5 Time Scale Boundaries 260
11.4.6 Key LCA Modeling Decision Points 260
11.5 Overview of Existing Waste Related LCAs 261
11.6 Using Waste Management LCA Information
for Decision Making 265
References 265
12 Application of LCA in Mining and Minerals Processing --Current
Programs and Noticeable Gaps 267
Dr. Mary Stewart, Dr. Peter Holt and Mr. Rob Rouwette
12.1 Introduction 267
12.2 The Status Quo 268
12.2.1 LCA Use in the Mining and Mineral
Processing Industry 268
12.2.1.1 Low Overall Business Priority 271
x Contents
12.2.2 Life Cycle Inventory/Life Cycle Assessment in Mining
and Processing 272
12.2.2.1 Corporate Initiatives 272
12.2.2.2 Association Initiatives 273
12.2.2.3 Supply Chain and Voluntary Initiatives 274
12.2.2.4 Market Positioning and Advocacy 276
12.2.3 Life Cycle Management 276
12.3 What is LCA and LCM Information Being Used for? 279
12.3.1 Internal Decision Taking 280
12.3.2 External Decision Taking 281
12.4 Gaps and Constraints 284
12.4.1 Methodological Considerations 284
12.4.2 Value Chain Structures 286
12.5 Conclusions and Recommendations 288
References 289
13 Sustainable Preservative-Treated Forest Products,
Their Life Cycle Environmental Impacts, and End of
Life Management Opportunities: A Case Study 291
Christopher A. Bolin
13.1 Introduction 291
13.2 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis 293
13.2.1 Forestry and Milling 293
13.2.1.1 Forestry 293
13.2.1.2 Milling 294
13.2.1.3 Properties of Wood 295
13.2.2 Preservative Manufacture and Treatment
of Lumber Products 296
13.2.3 Preservative-Treated Wood Product Service Life 299
13.2.4 End of Life Management 299
13.2.4.1 Landfi ll Disposal 299
13.2.4.2 Reuse 300
13.2.4.3 Reuse for Energy 300
13.3 Energy Reuse Considerations 301
13.3.1 Chemicals in Preservative-treated Wood 301
13.3.1.1 Lumber Containing Copper-Based
Preservative 301
13.3.1.2 Lumber Containing Boron-Based
Preservatives 301
13.3.2 Lumber Collection at the End of Service Life 302
13.4 Case Study Scenarios 302
13.5 Carbon Accounting, Impact Indicator Defi nition,
and Classifi cation 303
13.5.1 Carbon Accounting 303
13.5.2 Fossil Fuel Usage 304
13.5.3 Total Energy 304
13.5.4 Other Impact Indicators Assessed 305
Contents xi
13.6 Lumber Life Cycle Assessment Findings 305
13.7 Conclusions 308
References 308
14 Buildings, Systems Thinking, and Life Cycle Assessment 311
Joel Ann Todd
14.1 Introduction 311
14.2 Applying LCA to Buildings 314
14.2.1 Opportunities 314
14.2.2 Challenges 315
14.3 History and Progress in Applying LCA to Buildings 319
14.3.1 Databases, Tools, and Resources 319
14.3.1.1 AIA Environmental Resource Guide 319
14.3.1.2 BEES 320
14.3.1.3 US LCI Database 321
14.3.1.4 ATHENA Ecocalculator and Impact Estimator 321
14.3.1.5 Other Tools 321
14.3.2 International Standards and Codes 322
14.3.2.1 ISO 322
14.3.2.2 CEN TC350 322
14.3.2.3 ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189 for
the Design of High-Performance Green Buildings,
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings 323
14.3.2.4 International Green Construction Code (IGCC) 323
14.3.3 Assessment and Certifi cation Systems 324
14.3.3.1 BREEAM 324
14.3.3.2 LEED 325
14.3.3.3 DGNB 325
14.3.3.4 Green Globes (US) 326
14.4 Evolution and Future Applications to the Built Environment 326
References 327
15 Life Cycle Assessment in Product Innovation 329
Nuno Da Silva
15.1 Introduction 329
15.2 Background 330
15.3 What R&D is For 331
15.4 The Innovation Funnel 331
15.5 Idea Generation 332
15.6 Idea Assessment 334
15.7 Concept Development 335
15.8 Business Planning and Execution 337
15.9 Where to Focus --Management Framework 337
15.10 Sustainable Portfolio Management 338
15.11 Tools 340
15.12 Data 342
References 342
xii Contents
16 Life Cycle Assessment as a Tool in Food Waste Reduction
and Packaging Optimization --Packaging Innovation
and Optimization in a Life Cycle Perspective 345
Ole J ¸rgen Hanssen, Hanne M ¸ller, Erik Svanes
and Vibeke Schakenda
16.1 Introduction 345
16.2 Food Waste and Packaging Optimization
in a Life Cycle Perspective 346
16.3 Principles and Models for Optimal Packaging
in a Life Cycle/Value Chain Perspective 350
16.4 Case Studies on LCA of Food Waste and Packaging Optimization 354
16.4.1 Case Studies on Packaging Optimization and
Food Waste Reduction? 354
16.4.2 Case Study on Coffee Packing and Distribution 355
16.4.2.1 Packaging System and Effects of Implemented
Improvement Options 355
16.4.2.2 Effects of 20% Improvement in Strategies
for Packaging Optimization 356
16.4.3 Case study on Packing and Distribution of Whole Pieces
of Cheese 356
16.4.3.1 Optimization of Degree of Filling on Pallet
for Cheese Packaging 357
16.4.3.2 Effects of 20% Improvement in Strategies
for Packaging Optimization 358
16.4.3.3 Comparison of the Value Chain for
Whole Pieces of Cheese and Sliced Cheese
and the Corresponding Packaging 359
16.4.3.4 Effects of 20% Improvement in Strategies for
Packaging Optimization 360
16.4.4 Case Study on Salad Packing and Distribution 361
16.5 Discussion and Conclusions 363
References 366
17 Integration of LCA and Life-Cycle Thinking within the Themes
of Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 369
Shawn Hunter, Richard Helling and Dawn Shiang
17.1 Introduction 369
17.2 The Four Themes of Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 370
17.3 Life Cycle Assessment as a Tool for Evaluating
SC&E Opportunities 376
17.3.1 Importance of Life Cycle Thinking for SC&E 376
17.3.2 What is the Value of a Renewable Feedstock? 378
17.3.2.1 Natural Oil-Based Polyols 378
17.3.2.2 Sugarcane-Based Polyethylene 380
17.3.3 How Important is the Project Team-- Piece
of the Life Cycle? 381
Contents xiii
17.3.3.1 New Coatings Technology 382
17.3.3.2 LCA of Tetrahydrofuran Synthesis in
High-Temperature Water 383
17.3.4 What is the Return on Life Cycle Investment? 384
17.4 LCA --One Tool in the Sustainability Toolbox 385
17.4.1 Screening Sustainability Assessment Tools 385
17.4.2 Economic Evaluation 386
17.4.3 Site-Specifi c Assessment Tools 386
17.4.3.1 Environmental Impact Assessment 387
17.4.3.2 Risk Assessment 387
17.4.3.3 Social Impact Assessment 387
17.5 Summary 388
Acknowledgement 388
References 388
Part 3: LCA Supports Decision Making and Sustainability
18 How to Approach the Assessment? 391
Jos Potting, Shabbir Gheewala, Sbastien Bonnet
and Joost van Buuren
18.1 Introduction 391
18.2 Assessment Methods 393
18.2.1 Technology Assessment 393
18.2.2 Environmental Impact Assessment 394
18.2.3 Risk Assessment 396
18.2.4 Life Cycle Assessment 398
18.3 Comparison of Assessment Methods 400
18.4 Guidance for Assessment 405
18.5 Discussion and Conclusions 409
Acknowledgement 410
References 410
19 Integration of MCDA Tools in Valuation of Comparative
Life Cycle Assessment 413
Valentina Prado, Kristen Rogers and Thomas P. Seager PhD
19.1 Introduction 413
19.2 Current Practices in LCIA 415
19.3 Principles of External Normalization 416
19.4 Issues with External Normalization 417
19.4.1 Inherent Data Gaps 417
19.4.2 Masking Salient Aspects 417
19.4.3 Compensation 419
19.4.4 Spatial Boundaries and Time Frames 419
19.4.5 Divergence in Data Bases 419
19.5 Principles of Internal Normalization 419
19.5.1 Compensatory Methods 420
19.5.2 Partially Compensatory Methods 421
xiv Contents
19.6 Weighting 423
19.7 Case 1: Magnitude Sensitivity 424
19.8 Case 2: Rank Reversal 426
19.9 Conclusions 428
References 428
20 Social Life Cycle Assessment: A Technique Providing a
New Wealth of Information to Inform Sustainability-Related
Decision Making 433
Catherine Beno ®t Norris
20.1 Historical Development 433
20.2 Why Do Businesses Care? 435
20.3 Methodology 436
20.3.1 Defi ning Social Issues 436
20.3.2 The Framework 437
20.3.3 Typical Phases of a Study 441
20.3.3.1 Iterative Process of Social Life Cycle Assessment 441
20.3.3.2 Goal and Scope 442
20.3.3.3 Life Cycle Inventory 444
20.3.3.4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 444
20.3.3.5 Interpretation 445
20.4 SLCA and other Key Social Responsibility References
and Instruments 445
20.5 Conclusion 449
References 450
21 Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis 453
Alessandra Zamagni, Jeroen Guine, Reinout Heijungs
and Paolo Masoni
21.1 LCA and Sustainability Questions 453
21.1.1 What is Sustainability? 453
21.1.2 Life Cycle Analysis and Sustainability 455
21.2 A Framework for Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis 459
21.2.1 Broadening 461
21.2.1.1 Broadening of the Object of Analysis 461
21.2.1.2 Broadening of the Spectrum of Indicators 462
21.2.2 Deepening 466
21.2.2.1 Increasing Sophistication in LCI Modelling 466
21.2.2.2 Economic and Behavioral Mechanisms 467
21.2.2.3 Deepening LCA and Consequential LCA 468
21.3 Future Directions for Research 469
21.3.1 Aligning Environmental with Economic
and Social Indicators 470
21.3.2 Framing the Question 471
21.3.3 Modelling Options for Meso-Level and Economy-Wide
Applications 471
References 472
Contents xv
22 Environmental Product Claims and Life Cycle Assessment 275
Martha J. Stevenson and Wesley W. Ingwersen
22.1 Introduction 275
22.2 Typology of Claims: Three Different Claims per ISO Standards 277
22.2.1 Type I Ecolabels 277
22.2.2 Type II Environmental Claims 278
22.2.3 Type III Environmental Product Declarations 279
22.2.3.1 An EPD is a Document 279
22.2.3.2 An EPD is Primarily Based on LCA 279
22.2.3.3 An EPD is Developed by Following
a Product Category Rule -- 280
22.2.3.4 An EPD can Contain Information Beyond
the Scope of an LCA, Where Relevant to
that Product 280
22.2.4 Further Information on EPDs and PCRs 281
22.2.5 Reference Case Study on Dairy PCR & EPDs 281
22.2.5.1 Liquid Milk PCR 282
22.2.5.2 Granarolo Milk EPD 283
22.3 Other LCA-Based Product Claims 284
22.4 Other Relevant Environmental Information 285
22.4.1 Water Footprinting 286
22.4.2 Toxicity Risk Assessment 286
22.4.3 Ecosystem Services Assessment 287
22.5 Conclusion 287
References 288
Appendix 1: Global Update of PCR/EPD Activity 491
Appendix 2: Product Category Rules 497
Appendix 3: Environmental Product Declaration
for High-Quality Pasteurized Milk Packaged
in Pet Bottles 521
Part 4: Operationalizing LCA
23 Building Capacity for Life Cycle Assessment
in Developing Countries 545
Prof. Toolseeram Ramjeawon
23.1 Introduction 545
23.2 Status of LCA in Developing Countries 546
23.3 Challenges and opportunities 547
23.3.1 Challenges 547
23.3.2 Opportunities 549
23.4 Improving the Effectiveness of Capacity Building Initiatives 550
23.5 A Roadmap for Capacity Building in LCA
in Developing Countries 555
23.5.1 Introduction of Life Cycle Topics in
Educational Programs and Research Activities 556
23.5.2 Networking 558
xvi Contents
23.5.3 Setting up of a National Inventory Database
and Development of Tools to Set Up, Maintain
and Disseminate Data 558
23.5.4 Development of National Life Cycle
Impact Assessment (LCIA) Methodologies 559
23.5.5 Capacity Development to Apply LCA
in Industry and in Public Decision Making 559
23.5.6 Promotion of LCA Applications and Creating a Stock
of Success Stories and Dissemination 560
23.5.7 Policy Development 560
23.6 Conclusions 560
References 561
24 Environmental Accountability: A New Paradigm for
World Trade is Emerging 563
Ann K. Ngo
24.1 Introduction 563
24.2 The Paradigm Shift and LCA 564
24.3 International Trade and LCA 568
24.4 Behavior Change and LCA 570
24.4.1 The Role of Businesses 571
24.4.2 The Role of Governments 572
24.4.3 The Role of Consumers 576
24.4.4 The Role of NGOs 577
24.4.5 The Role of Academia 578
24.5 Challenges and Opportunities for a World Shifting
to Using LCA and Environmental Impacts as Components
of Regulation and Commerce 580
Appendix I 582
References 583
25 Life Cycle Knowledge Informs Greener Products 585
James Fava
25.1 Introduction 585
25.2 Situation Analysis 586
25.2.1 How Could We Set a River on Fire? 586
25.2.2 After an Early LCA Study, Coca-Cola Opted
to Challenge its Suppliers to Improve their Products
Rather than Simply Prohibiting the
Use of Certain Materials 587
25.2.3 Dueling Diaper Debates Fueled the Initial
Understanding that all Products have Impacts
that may differ in Nature, Scope, and Medium 587
25.2.4 Mercury found in Fluorescent Light Bulbs is not
the Predominant Source of Mercury that may
Enter the Environment as a Result of Light Bulb
Use and Disposal 588
Contents xvii
25.2.5 What if We would have Examined the Full Life
Cycle Impacts of MTBE Before it was Commercialized
to Reduce Smog in Cities? 590
25.2.6 Quality and Safety are Imperative Considerations
in the Design and Development of Every Product
Made Today, but It was not Always so 591
25.2.7 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) were Initially
Expensive and Data Collection was Time Consuming,
but Today GIS Systems are Commonplace in Most
Planning and Decision Support Functions 592
25.2.8 In the 1970s, Carnival Led the Way in Making Cruising
Affordable for the Masses 592
25.3 Diagnostics and Interpretation 593
25.4 Concluding Remarks 595
References 596
Index 597
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BISAC SUBJECT HEADINGS
TEC009060: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Industrial Engineering
TEC020000: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Manufacturing
TEC010000: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Environmental / General
BIC CODES
RNU: Sustainability
KCN: Environmental Economics
TD: INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY & MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES
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