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Submit a ProposalPetroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook Volume 1
 | By A. Kayode Coker Copyright: 2018 | Status: Published ISBN: 9781118233696 | Hardcover | Price: $295 USD  |
One Line Description
The most comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of the advances of petroleum refining designs and applications, written by one of the world's most well-known process engineers, this is a must-have for any chemical, process, or petroleum engineer.
Audience
Petroleum, chemical, and process engineers, petroleum and chemical engineering students, engineers and technicians working in petroleum refining, other engineers and technicians in the oil and gas industry, and engineers working towards Professional Engineering qualifications
Petroleum, chemical, and process engineers, petroleum and chemical engineering students, engineers and technicians working in petroleum refining, other engineers and technicians in the oil and gas industry, and engineers working towards Professional Engineering qualifications
Description
There is a renaissance that is occurring in chemical and process engineering, and it is crucial for today’s scientists, engineers, technicians, and operators to stay current. With so many changes over the last few decades in equipment and processes, petroleum refining is almost a living document, constantly needing updating. With no new refineries being built, companies are spending their capital re-tooling and adding on to existing plants. Refineries are like small cities, today, as they grow bigger and bigger and more and more complex. A huge percentage of a refinery can be changed, literally, from year to year, to account for the type of crude being refined or to integrate new equipment or processes.
This book is the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student. Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world’s foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area.
Back to Top
There is a renaissance that is occurring in chemical and process engineering, and it is crucial for today’s scientists, engineers, technicians, and operators to stay current. With so many changes over the last few decades in equipment and processes, petroleum refining is almost a living document, constantly needing updating. With no new refineries being built, companies are spending their capital re-tooling and adding on to existing plants. Refineries are like small cities, today, as they grow bigger and bigger and more and more complex. A huge percentage of a refinery can be changed, literally, from year to year, to account for the type of crude being refined or to integrate new equipment or processes.
This book is the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student. Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world’s foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area.
Back to Top
Supplementary Data
DOWNLOAD SOFTWARE AND OTHER MATERIAL RELATING TO THIS TITLE FROM ITS COMPANION WEB PAGE AT THE LINK ABOVE.
• Assists engineers in rapidly analyzing problems and finding effective design methods and select mechanical specifications
• Provides improved design manuals to methods and proven fundamentals of process design with related data and charts
• Covers a complete range of basic day–to–day petroleum refining operations topics with new materials on significant industry changes since 2005
• Provides UniSim ®-based case studies for enabling simulation of key processes outlined in the book
• Helps achieve optimum operations and process conditions, and shows how to translate design fundamentals into mechanical equipment specifications
• Has a related website that includes computer applications along with spreadsheets and concise applied process design flow charts
DOWNLOAD SOFTWARE AND OTHER MATERIAL RELATING TO THIS TITLE FROM ITS COMPANION WEB PAGE AT THE LINK ABOVE.
• Assists engineers in rapidly analyzing problems and finding effective design methods and select mechanical specifications
• Provides improved design manuals to methods and proven fundamentals of process design with related data and charts
• Covers a complete range of basic day–to–day petroleum refining operations topics with new materials on significant industry changes since 2005
• Provides UniSim ®-based case studies for enabling simulation of key processes outlined in the book
• Helps achieve optimum operations and process conditions, and shows how to translate design fundamentals into mechanical equipment specifications
• Has a related website that includes computer applications along with spreadsheets and concise applied process design flow charts
Reviews
Article by Matthew Bennett CEng and MIChemE In "Chemical Engineer" magazine
A compendium of refining processes of monumental proportions, written by an author whose surname I guess meant he was destined to write a book on refining processes. This book contains pretty much everything you could want to know about conventional oil refining. It’s a one-stop-shop for those wishing to gain an in-depth understanding of the fundamentals of each key fuels refining process.
The book starts with an overview of key properties of crude oil and refined products, then moves on to detailed descriptions of each major refinery process, including crude distillation, fluid catalytic cracking, and coking. (Coker covers coking processes and describes coker units very clearly and comprehensively in Chapter six.)
For each major process there is a wealth of detail describing the function of the process and how it fits into the overall refinery. The key chemical reactions occurring are described, helping the reader to clearly understand how the
hydrocarbon components present within crude oil are modified, and the reason modifications are necessary to produce useful products is explained.
There is an impressive collection of kinetic and thermodynamic detail drawn from a great wealth of references. This provides useful information to enable design calculations to be done by those wishing to design a new unit or rate an existing one.
Additionally, the book touches on many important operational aspects of refining such as safety and environmental considerations, new technologies, and troubleshooting techniques. Although not a comprehensive data source for these operational considerations it provides examples that give a good flavour for the day-to-day challenges that refiners can face.
However, there is some level of inconsistency as to which operational considerations are discussed chapter to chapter. For example there is a discussion regarding health, safety, and environmental considerations for distillation, hydroprocessing and fluid catalytic cracking processes, but not for reforming and gas-treating processes.
Similarly, troubleshooting sections are included for some but not all processes.
And, what else isn’t in scope?
The main refining process category that is not described is lubes basestock production, something that is relevant to about 15% of the global refinery population.
Additionally, sustainability is not a strong theme and emerging processes such as production of fuels products from bio-component feedstock and carbon capture technologies are not covered. Given global sustainability goals, I think these are areas the book should have covered.
This is a serious book, with a richness and depth of technical detail, which I’d recommend to engineers who already have some working knowledge of refining processes and are looking to gain a greater depth of knowledge and/or for a useful and comprehensive design reference guide. It would also be an excellent choice as a university reference book – for those studying refining processes as part of a chemical engineering degree – and as a resource in the library of refining operators and design contractors.
As a Refining Technical Specialist, I have found this book to be a very useful reference which has provided me with insights about some different processes that I was not aware of. When I have a future need to find some information regarding a process I will certainly count this amongst my key reference sources. I also intend to update training material that I deliver to cover some of the theory described in this book that I have not encountered within in-house data sources.
Article by Matthew Bennett CEng, MIChemE
Refining Process Technology Specialist, ExxonMobil
Article by Matthew Bennett CEng and MIChemE In "Chemical Engineer" magazine
A compendium of refining processes of monumental proportions, written by an author whose surname I guess meant he was destined to write a book on refining processes. This book contains pretty much everything you could want to know about conventional oil refining. It’s a one-stop-shop for those wishing to gain an in-depth understanding of the fundamentals of each key fuels refining process.
The book starts with an overview of key properties of crude oil and refined products, then moves on to detailed descriptions of each major refinery process, including crude distillation, fluid catalytic cracking, and coking. (Coker covers coking processes and describes coker units very clearly and comprehensively in Chapter six.)
For each major process there is a wealth of detail describing the function of the process and how it fits into the overall refinery. The key chemical reactions occurring are described, helping the reader to clearly understand how the
hydrocarbon components present within crude oil are modified, and the reason modifications are necessary to produce useful products is explained.
There is an impressive collection of kinetic and thermodynamic detail drawn from a great wealth of references. This provides useful information to enable design calculations to be done by those wishing to design a new unit or rate an existing one.
Additionally, the book touches on many important operational aspects of refining such as safety and environmental considerations, new technologies, and troubleshooting techniques. Although not a comprehensive data source for these operational considerations it provides examples that give a good flavour for the day-to-day challenges that refiners can face.
However, there is some level of inconsistency as to which operational considerations are discussed chapter to chapter. For example there is a discussion regarding health, safety, and environmental considerations for distillation, hydroprocessing and fluid catalytic cracking processes, but not for reforming and gas-treating processes.
Similarly, troubleshooting sections are included for some but not all processes.
And, what else isn’t in scope?
The main refining process category that is not described is lubes basestock production, something that is relevant to about 15% of the global refinery population.
Additionally, sustainability is not a strong theme and emerging processes such as production of fuels products from bio-component feedstock and carbon capture technologies are not covered. Given global sustainability goals, I think these are areas the book should have covered.
This is a serious book, with a richness and depth of technical detail, which I’d recommend to engineers who already have some working knowledge of refining processes and are looking to gain a greater depth of knowledge and/or for a useful and comprehensive design reference guide. It would also be an excellent choice as a university reference book – for those studying refining processes as part of a chemical engineering degree – and as a resource in the library of refining operators and design contractors.
As a Refining Technical Specialist, I have found this book to be a very useful reference which has provided me with insights about some different processes that I was not aware of. When I have a future need to find some information regarding a process I will certainly count this amongst my key reference sources. I also intend to update training material that I deliver to cover some of the theory described in this book that I have not encountered within in-house data sources.
Article by Matthew Bennett CEng, MIChemE
Refining Process Technology Specialist, ExxonMobil
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Author / Editor Details
A. Kayode Coker PhD, is Engineering Consultant for AKC Technology, an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Wolverhampton, U.K., a former Engineering Coordinator at Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company (SASREF) and Chairman of the department of Chemical Engineering Technology at Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia. He has been a chartered chemical engineer for more than 30 years. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, U.K. (C. Eng., FIChemE), and a senior
member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE). He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in Process Analysis and Development and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, U.K. and a Teacher’s Certificate in Education at the University of London, U.K. He has directed and conducted
short courses extensively throughout the world and has been a lecturer at the university level. His articles have been published in several international journals. He is an author of five books in chemical engineering, a contributor to the Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, Vol 61, and a certified train – the mentor trainer. A Technical Report Assessor and Interviewer
for chartered chemical engineers (IChemE) in the U.K. He is a member of the International Biographical Centre in Cambridge, U.K (IBC) as Leading Engineers of the World for 2008. Also, he is a member of International Who’s Who for ProfessionalsTM and Madison Who’s Who in the U.S.
A. Kayode Coker PhD, is Engineering Consultant for AKC Technology, an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Wolverhampton, U.K., a former Engineering Coordinator at Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company (SASREF) and Chairman of the department of Chemical Engineering Technology at Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia. He has been a chartered chemical engineer for more than 30 years. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, U.K. (C. Eng., FIChemE), and a senior
member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE). He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in Process Analysis and Development and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, U.K. and a Teacher’s Certificate in Education at the University of London, U.K. He has directed and conducted
short courses extensively throughout the world and has been a lecturer at the university level. His articles have been published in several international journals. He is an author of five books in chemical engineering, a contributor to the Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, Vol 61, and a certified train – the mentor trainer. A Technical Report Assessor and Interviewer
for chartered chemical engineers (IChemE) in the U.K. He is a member of the International Biographical Centre in Cambridge, U.K (IBC) as Leading Engineers of the World for 2008. Also, he is a member of International Who’s Who for ProfessionalsTM and Madison Who’s Who in the U.S.
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Table of Contents
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Biography xxi
1 Introduction 1
References 6
2 Composition of Crude Oils and Petroleum Products 7
2.1 Hydrocarbons 8
2.1.1 Alkynes Series 12
2.2 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 14
2.3 Heteroatomic Organic Compounds 15
2.3.1 Non-hydrocarbons 15
2.3.2 Sulfur Compounds 18
2.4 Thiols 18
2.5 Oxygen Compounds 20
2.6 Nitrogen Compounds 22
2.7 Resins and Asphaltenes 23
2.8 Salts 24
2.9 Carbon Dioxide 24
2.10 Metallic Compounds 24
2.11 Products Composition 25
2.11.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) (C3 and C4) 26
2.11.2 Gasoline (C5 to C11) 26
2.11.3 Condensate (C4, C5 C6 and >) 27
2.11.4 Gas Fuel Oils (C12 to C19) 27
2.11.5 Kerosene 27
2.11.6 Diesel Fuel 28
2.11.7 Fuel Oils # 4, 5, and 6 28
2.11.8 Residual Fuel Oil 28
2.11.9 Natural Gas 29
References 30
3 Characterization of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions 31
3.1 Introduction 31
3.1.1 Crude Oil Properties 32
3.1.2 Gravity, API 32
3.1.3 Boiling Point Range 33
3.1.4 Characterization Factor 33
3.1.5 The Universal Oil Product Characterization factor, KUOP 34
3.1.6 Carbon Residue, wt% 34
3.1.7 Nitrogen Content, wt% 36
3.1.8 Sulfur Content, wt% 36
3.1.9 Total Acid Number (TAN) 36
3.1.10 Salt Content, pounds/1000 ‚ barrels 36
3.1.11 Metals, parts/million (ppm) by weight 36
3.1.12 Pour Point (oF or ‚°C) 36
3.2 Crude Oil Assay Data 37
3.2.1 Whole crude oil average properties 37
3.2.2 Fractional properties 37
3.3 Crude Cutting Analysis 37
3.4 Crude Oil Blending 37
3.5 Laboratory Testing of Crude Oils 46
3.5.1 True Boiling Point (TBP) Curve 46
3.5.2 ASTM D86 Distillation 46
3.5.3 Boiling Points 47
3.5.4 Conversion between ASTM and TBP Distillation 50
3.5.5 Petroleum pseudo-components 57
3.5.6 Pseudo-component Normal Boiling Points 57
3.5.7 ASTM D1160 Distillation 58
3.5.8 Determination of ASTM IBP, 10%, 20 -- 90% Points of Blend 58
3.5.9 ASTM 10 -- 90% Points 58
3.5.10 Initial Boiling Point Determination 59
3.5.11 ASTM End Point of Blend 59
3.5.12 Flash Point 59
3.5.13 Flash Point, ‚°F, as a Function of Average Boiling Point 59
3.5.14 Smoke Point of Kerosenes 60
3.5.15 Luminometer Number 60
3.5.16 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) 60
3.5.17 Vapor Pressure of Narrow Hydrocarbon Cuts 60
3.6 Octanes 61
3.7 Cetanes 61
3.7.1 Cetane Index 61
3.8 Diesel Index 61
3.9 Determination of the Lower Heating Value of Petroleum Fractions 62
3.10 Aniline Point Blending 62
3.12 Correlation Index (CI) 62
3.11 Chromatographically Simulated Distillations 63
References 64
4 Thermodynamic Properties of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions 65
4.1 K-Factor Hydrocarbon Equilibrium Charts 66
4.2 Non-Ideal Systems 72
4.3 Vapor pressure 74
4.3.1 Vapor pressure determination using the Clausius-Clapeyron and the Antoine Equations 75
4.4 Viscosity 80
4.4.1 Conversion to Saybolt Universal Viscosity 80
4.4.2 Conversion to Saybolt Furol Viscosity 80
4.4.3 Equivalents of Kinematic (cSt), Saybolt Universal (SUS), and Dynamic viscosity 82
4.4.4 Viscosity of Liquid Hydrocarbons 83
4.4.5 Gas viscosity 83
4.6 Refractive Index 85
4.7 Liquid density 88
4.7.1 Gas density 89
4.8 Molecular weight 89
4.9 Molecular Type Composition 89
4.10 Critical Temperature, Tc 96
4.11 Critical Pressure, Pc 97
4.12 Pseudo-Critical Constants and Acentric Factors 98
4.13 Enthalpy of Petroleum Fractions 99
4.14 Compressibility Z Factor of Natural Gases 100
4.15 Simulation Thermodynamic Software Programs 105
References 109
Appendix A 111
5 Process Descriptions of Refinery Processes 127
5.1 Introduction 127
5.2 Refinery and Distillation Processes 131
5.3 Process Description of the Crude Distillation Unit 136
5.3.1 Crude Oil Desalting 137
5.3.2 Types of Salts in Crude Oil 138
5.3.3 Desalting Process 138
5.3.4 Pumparound Heat Removal 143
5.3.5 Tower Pressure Drop and Flooding 146
5.3.7 Rectifying Section of the Main Column 146
5.3.8 Side Stripping Columns 146
5.3.9 Crude Column Overhead 146
5.3.10 General Properties of Petroleum Fractions 146
5.4 Process Variables in the Design of Crude Distillation Column 148
5.4.1 Process Design of a Crude Distillation Column 149
5.5 Process Simulation 150
5.5.1 Overall Check of Simulation 151
5.5.2 Other Aspects of Design 152
5.5.3 Relationship between Actual Trays and Theoretical Trays 153
5.6 Process Description of Light Arabian Crude Using UniSim ‚® Simulation Software ‚ [12] 154
5.6.1 Column Conventions 157
5.6.2 Performance Specifications Definition 158
5.6.3 Cut Points 158
5.6.4 Degree of Separation 158
5.6.5 Overflash 158
5.6.6 Column Pressure 159
5.6.7 Overhead Temperature 159
5.6.8 Bottom Stripping 160
5.6.9 Side Stream Stripper 160
5.6.10 Reflux 160
5.7 Troubleshooting Actual Columns 160
5.8 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 161
References 164
6 Thermal Cracking Processes 165
6.1 Process Description 168
6.2 Steam Jet Ejector 168
6.3 Pressure Survey in a Vacuum Column 170
6.4 Simulation of Vacuum Distillation Unit 172
6.5 Coking 173
6.5.1 Delayed Coking 173
6.5.2 Delayed Coker Yield Prediction 177
6.5.3 Coke Formation 178
6.5.4 Thermodynamics of Coking of Light Hydrocarbons 178
6.5.5 Gas Composition 179
6.6 Fluid Coking 180
6.6.1 Flexi-Coking 181
6.6.2 Contact Coking 183
6.6.3 Coke drums 184
6.6.4 Heavy Coker Gas Oil (HCGO) Production 186
6.6.5 Light Coker Gas Oil (LCGO) Production 187
6.7 Fractionator Overhead System 187
6.8 Coke Drum Operations 188
6.9 Hydraulic Jet Decoking 189
6.10 Uses of Petroleum Coke 190
6.11 Use of Gasification 190
6.12 Sponge coke 191
6.13 Safety and Environmental Considerations 191
6.14 Simulation/Calculations 192
6.15 Visbreaking 193
6.15.1 Visbreaking Reactions 196
6.15.2 Visbreaking Severity 196
6.15.3 Operation and Control 196
6.15.4 Typical Visbreaker Unit 197
6.15.5 Typical Visbreaker Unit with Vacuum Flasher 198
6.15.6 Typical Combination Visbreaker and Thermal Cracker 199
6.15.7 Product Yield 199
6.16 Process Simulation 200
6.17 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 201
References 202
7 Hydroprocessing 203
7.1 Catalytic Conversion Processes 203
Hydrocracking 203
7.1.1 Hydrocracking Chemistry 204
7.1.2 Hydrocracking Reactions 206
7.1.3 Typical hydrocracking reactions 207
7.2 Feed Specifications 210
7.2.1 Space Velocity 211
7.2.2 Reactor Temperature 211
7.2.3 Reactor Pressure 211
7.2.4 Hydrogen Recycle Rate 211
7.2.5 Oil Recycle Ratio 211
7.2.6 Heavy Polynuclear Aromatics 212
7.3 Feed Boiling Range 212
7.4 Catalyst 212
7.4.1 Catalyst Performance 213
7.4.2 Loss of Catalyst Performance 213
7.4.3 Poisoning by Impurities in Feeds or Catalysts 214
7.4.4 The Apparent Catalyst Activity 216
7.5 Poor Gas Distribution 216
7.6 Poor Mixing of Reactants 216
7.7 The Mechanism of Hydrocracking 216
7.8 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Hydrocracking 217
7.9 Process Design, Rating and Performance 220
7.9.1 Operating Temperature and Pressure 221
7.9.2 Optimum Catalyst Size and Shape 221
7.9.3 Pressure drop ( Ž€P) in Tubular/Fixed-Bed Reactors 221
7.9.4 Catalyst Particle Size 223
7.9.5 Vessel Dimensions 224
7.10 Increased Ž€P 226
7.11 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate 230
7.12 Measurement of Performance 231
7.13 Catalyst-bed Temperature Profiles 232
7.14 Factors Affecting Hydrocracking Process Operation 233
7.15 Hydrocracking Correlations 233
7.15.1 Maximum Aviation Turbine Kerosene (ATK) Correlations 235
7.15.2 Process Description 236
7.15.3 Fresh Feed and Recycle Liquid System 239
7.15.4 Liquid and Vapor Separators 241
7.15.5 Recycle Gas Compression and Distribution 242
7.15.6 Hydrogen Distribution 242
7.15.7 Control of the Hydrogen System 242
7.15.8 Reactor Design 242
7.16 Hydrocracker Fractionating Unit 244
7.16.1 Mild Vacuum Column 246
7.16.2 Steam Generation 246
7.17 Operating Variables 247
7.18 Hydrotreating Process 249
7.18.1 Process Description 253
7.18.2 Process Variables 253
7.18.3 Hydrotreating Catalysts 256
7.19 Thermodynamics of Hydrotreating 257
7.20 Reaction Kinetics 259
7.21 Naphtha Hydrotreating 261
7.21.1 Hydrotreating Correlations 261
7.21.2 Middle Distillates Hydrotreating 264
7.21.3 Middle Distillate Hydrotreating Correlations 264
7.22 Atmospheric Residue Desulfurization 266
7.22.1 High-Pressure Separator 268
7.22.2 Low-Pressure Separator 268
7.22.3 Hydrogen Sulfide Removal 268
7.22.4 Recycled Gas Compressor 268
7.22.5 Process Water 268
7.22.6 Fractionation Column 269
.22.7 Operating Conditions of Hydrotreating Processes 269
7.23 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 273
References 273
8 Catalytic Cracking 275
8.1 Introduction 275
8.2 Fluidized Bed Catalytic Cracking 278
8.2.1 Process Description 278
8.3 Modes of Fluidization 285
8.4 Cracking Reactions 286
8.4.1 Secondary Reactions 288
8.5 Thermodynamics of FCC 289
8.5.1 Transport Phenomena, Reaction Patterns and Kinetic models 289
8.5.2 Three- and Four-lump kinetic models 292
8.6 Process Design Variables 294
8.6.1 Process Variables 295
8.6.2 Process Operational Variables 296
8.7 Material and Energy Balances 297
8.7.1 Material Balance 297
8.7.2 Energy Balance 298
8.7 Heat Recovery 299
8.8 FCC Yield Correlations 300
8.9 Estimating potential yields of FCC feed 302
8.10 Pollution Control 306
8.11 New Technology 308
8.11.1 Deep Catalytic Cracking 308
8.11.2 Shell-- Fluid Catalytic Cracking 309
8.11.3 Fluid Catalytic Cracking High Severity 310
8.11.4 Fluid Catalytic Cracking for Maximum Olefins 311
8.12 Refining/Petrochemical Integration 312
8.13 Metallurgy 312
8.14 Troubleshooting for Fluidized Catalyst Cracking Units 312
8.15 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 314
8.16 Licensors--‚¬„¢ Correlations 315
8.17 Simulation and Modeling Strategy 315
References 318
9 Catalytic Reforming and Isomerization 321
9.1 Introduction 321
9.2 Catalytic Reforming 322
9.3 Feed Characterization 322
9.4 Catalytic Reforming Processes 324
9.4.1 Role of Reformer in the Refinery 325
9.3.2 UOP Continuous Catalytic Regeneration (CCR) Reforming Process 326
9.5 Operations of the Reformer Process 328
9.5.1 Effect of Major Variables in Catalytic Reforming 330
9.6 Catalytic Reformer Reactors 332
9.7 Material Balance in Reforming 333
9.8 Reactions 336
9.8.1 Naphthene Dehydrogenation to Cyclohexanes 336
9.8.2 Dehydrocyclization of Paraffins to Aromatics 337
9.8.3 Dehydroisomerization of Alkylcyclopentanes to Aromatics 337
9.8.4 Isomerization of n-paraffins 337
9.9 Hydrocracking Reactions 338
9.10 Reforming Catalyst 338
9.11 Coke Deposition 339
9.12 Thermodynamics 341
9.13 Kinetic Models 342
9.14 The Reactor Model 344
9.15 Modeling of Naphtha Catalytic Reforming Process 344
9.16 Isomerization 345
9.16.1 Thermodynamics 345
9.16.2 Isomerization Reactions 346
9.17 Sulfolane Extraction Process 346
9.17.1 Sulfolane Extraction Unit (SEU) Corrosion Problems 348
19.17.2 Other Solvents for the Extraction Unit 349
9.18 Aromatic Complex 349
9.18.1 Aromatic Separation 349
9.19 Hydrodealkylation Process 351
9.19.1 Separation of the Reactor Effluents 352
References 353
10 Alkylation and Polymerization Processes 355
10.1 Introduction 355
10.2 Chemistry of Alkylation 356
10.3 Catalysts 358
10.4 Process Variables 359
10.5 Alkylation Feedstocks 361
10.6 Alkylation Products 362
10.7 Sulfuric Acid Alkylation Process 362
10.8 HF Alkylation 363
10.9 Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Alkylation 367
10.10 Polymerization 370
10.11 HF and H2SO4 Mitigating Releases 370
10.12 Corrosion Problems 372
10.12 A New Technology of Alkylation Process Using Ionic Liquid 372
10.14 Chevron --Honeywell UOP Ionic liquid Alkylation 373
10.15 Chemical Release and Flash Fire: A Case Study of the Alkylation Unit at the
Delaware City Refining Company (DCRC) involving Equipment Maintenance Incident. 374
References 378
11 Hydrogen Production and Purification 381
11.1 Hydrogen Requirements in a Refinery 381
11.2 Process Chemistry 382
11.3 High-Temperature Shift Conversion 384
11.4 Low-Temperature Shift Conversion 384
11.5 Gas Purification 384
11.6 Purification of Hydrogen Product 385
11.7 Hydrogen Distribution System 386
11.8 Off-Gas Hydrogen Recovery 387
11.9 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) unit 387
11.10 Refinery Hydrogen Management 391
11.11 Hydrogen Pinch Studies 393
References 395
12 Gas Processing and Acid Gas Removal 397
12.1 Introduction 397
12.2 Diesel Hydrodesulfurization (DHDS) 399
12.3 Hydrotreating Reactions 399
12.4 Gas Processing 404
12.4.1 Natural Gas 404
12.4.2 Gas Processing Methods 405
12.4.3 Reaction Gas Processes 406
12.4.4 Sweetening Process 406
12.4.5 MEROX Process 406
12.5 Sulfur Management 407
12.5.1 Sulfur Recovery Processes 409
12.5.2 Tail Gas Clean Up 417
12.6 Physical Solvent Gas Processes 417
12.6.1
Physical and Chemical Processes 418
12.6.2
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Sulfinol ‚® Process 418
12.7 Carbonate Process 418
12.8 Solution Batch Process 419
12.9 Process Description of Gas Processing using UniSim ‚® Simulation 421
12.10 Gas Dryer (Dehydration) Design 426
12.10.1 The Equations 428
12.10.2
Pressure Drop ( Ž€P) 429
12.10.3 Fouled Bed 429
12.11 Kremser-Brown-Sherwood Method-No Heat of Absorption 431
12.11.1
Absorption: Determine Component Absorption in Fixed Tray Tower
(Adapted in part from Ref. 12) 431
12.11.2
Absorption: Determine the Number of Trays for Specified Product Absorption 433
12.11.3
Stripping: Determine the Number of Theoretical Trays and
Stripping Steam or Gas Rate for a Component Recovery 434
12.11.4
Stripping: Determine Stripping-Medium Rate for a Fixed Recovery 436
12.12 Absorption: Edmister Method 437
12.12.1
Absorption and Stripping Efficiency 443
12.13 Gas Treating Troubleshooting 448
12.13.1
High Exit Gas Dew Point 448
12.13.2
High Glycol Losses 448
12.13.3 Glycol Contamination 448
12.13.4
Poor Glycol Reconcentration 449
12.13.5
Low Glycol Circulation --Glycol Pump 449
12.13.6
High Pressure Drop Across Contactor 449
12.13.7
High Stripping Still Temperature 449
12.13.8
High Reboiler Pressure 449
12.13.9
Firetube Fouling/Hot Spots/Burn Out 449
12.13.10 High Gas Dew Points 449
12.13.11 Cause --Inadequate Glycol Circulation Rate 449
12.13.12 Low Reboiler Temperature 449
12.13.13 Flash Separator Failure 450
12.13.14 Cause --Insufficient Reconcentration of Glycol 450
12.13.15 Cause --Operating Conditions Different from Design 450
12.13.16 Cause --Low Gas Flow Rates 450
12.13.17 High Glycol Loss 450
12.14 Cause --Loss of Glycol Out of Still Column 450
12.15 The ADIP Process 451
12.16 Sour Water Stripping Process 451
References 454
Glossary of Petroleum and Technical Terminology 457
Appendix 547
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Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Biography xxi
1 Introduction 1
References 6
2 Composition of Crude Oils and Petroleum Products 7
2.1 Hydrocarbons 8
2.1.1 Alkynes Series 12
2.2 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 14
2.3 Heteroatomic Organic Compounds 15
2.3.1 Non-hydrocarbons 15
2.3.2 Sulfur Compounds 18
2.4 Thiols 18
2.5 Oxygen Compounds 20
2.6 Nitrogen Compounds 22
2.7 Resins and Asphaltenes 23
2.8 Salts 24
2.9 Carbon Dioxide 24
2.10 Metallic Compounds 24
2.11 Products Composition 25
2.11.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) (C3 and C4) 26
2.11.2 Gasoline (C5 to C11) 26
2.11.3 Condensate (C4, C5 C6 and >) 27
2.11.4 Gas Fuel Oils (C12 to C19) 27
2.11.5 Kerosene 27
2.11.6 Diesel Fuel 28
2.11.7 Fuel Oils # 4, 5, and 6 28
2.11.8 Residual Fuel Oil 28
2.11.9 Natural Gas 29
References 30
3 Characterization of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions 31
3.1 Introduction 31
3.1.1 Crude Oil Properties 32
3.1.2 Gravity, API 32
3.1.3 Boiling Point Range 33
3.1.4 Characterization Factor 33
3.1.5 The Universal Oil Product Characterization factor, KUOP 34
3.1.6 Carbon Residue, wt% 34
3.1.7 Nitrogen Content, wt% 36
3.1.8 Sulfur Content, wt% 36
3.1.9 Total Acid Number (TAN) 36
3.1.10 Salt Content, pounds/1000 ‚ barrels 36
3.1.11 Metals, parts/million (ppm) by weight 36
3.1.12 Pour Point (oF or ‚°C) 36
3.2 Crude Oil Assay Data 37
3.2.1 Whole crude oil average properties 37
3.2.2 Fractional properties 37
3.3 Crude Cutting Analysis 37
3.4 Crude Oil Blending 37
3.5 Laboratory Testing of Crude Oils 46
3.5.1 True Boiling Point (TBP) Curve 46
3.5.2 ASTM D86 Distillation 46
3.5.3 Boiling Points 47
3.5.4 Conversion between ASTM and TBP Distillation 50
3.5.5 Petroleum pseudo-components 57
3.5.6 Pseudo-component Normal Boiling Points 57
3.5.7 ASTM D1160 Distillation 58
3.5.8 Determination of ASTM IBP, 10%, 20 -- 90% Points of Blend 58
3.5.9 ASTM 10 -- 90% Points 58
3.5.10 Initial Boiling Point Determination 59
3.5.11 ASTM End Point of Blend 59
3.5.12 Flash Point 59
3.5.13 Flash Point, ‚°F, as a Function of Average Boiling Point 59
3.5.14 Smoke Point of Kerosenes 60
3.5.15 Luminometer Number 60
3.5.16 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) 60
3.5.17 Vapor Pressure of Narrow Hydrocarbon Cuts 60
3.6 Octanes 61
3.7 Cetanes 61
3.7.1 Cetane Index 61
3.8 Diesel Index 61
3.9 Determination of the Lower Heating Value of Petroleum Fractions 62
3.10 Aniline Point Blending 62
3.12 Correlation Index (CI) 62
3.11 Chromatographically Simulated Distillations 63
References 64
4 Thermodynamic Properties of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions 65
4.1 K-Factor Hydrocarbon Equilibrium Charts 66
4.2 Non-Ideal Systems 72
4.3 Vapor pressure 74
4.3.1 Vapor pressure determination using the Clausius-Clapeyron and the Antoine Equations 75
4.4 Viscosity 80
4.4.1 Conversion to Saybolt Universal Viscosity 80
4.4.2 Conversion to Saybolt Furol Viscosity 80
4.4.3 Equivalents of Kinematic (cSt), Saybolt Universal (SUS), and Dynamic viscosity 82
4.4.4 Viscosity of Liquid Hydrocarbons 83
4.4.5 Gas viscosity 83
4.6 Refractive Index 85
4.7 Liquid density 88
4.7.1 Gas density 89
4.8 Molecular weight 89
4.9 Molecular Type Composition 89
4.10 Critical Temperature, Tc 96
4.11 Critical Pressure, Pc 97
4.12 Pseudo-Critical Constants and Acentric Factors 98
4.13 Enthalpy of Petroleum Fractions 99
4.14 Compressibility Z Factor of Natural Gases 100
4.15 Simulation Thermodynamic Software Programs 105
References 109
Appendix A 111
5 Process Descriptions of Refinery Processes 127
5.1 Introduction 127
5.2 Refinery and Distillation Processes 131
5.3 Process Description of the Crude Distillation Unit 136
5.3.1 Crude Oil Desalting 137
5.3.2 Types of Salts in Crude Oil 138
5.3.3 Desalting Process 138
5.3.4 Pumparound Heat Removal 143
5.3.5 Tower Pressure Drop and Flooding 146
5.3.7 Rectifying Section of the Main Column 146
5.3.8 Side Stripping Columns 146
5.3.9 Crude Column Overhead 146
5.3.10 General Properties of Petroleum Fractions 146
5.4 Process Variables in the Design of Crude Distillation Column 148
5.4.1 Process Design of a Crude Distillation Column 149
5.5 Process Simulation 150
5.5.1 Overall Check of Simulation 151
5.5.2 Other Aspects of Design 152
5.5.3 Relationship between Actual Trays and Theoretical Trays 153
5.6 Process Description of Light Arabian Crude Using UniSim ‚® Simulation Software ‚ [12] 154
5.6.1 Column Conventions 157
5.6.2 Performance Specifications Definition 158
5.6.3 Cut Points 158
5.6.4 Degree of Separation 158
5.6.5 Overflash 158
5.6.6 Column Pressure 159
5.6.7 Overhead Temperature 159
5.6.8 Bottom Stripping 160
5.6.9 Side Stream Stripper 160
5.6.10 Reflux 160
5.7 Troubleshooting Actual Columns 160
5.8 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 161
References 164
6 Thermal Cracking Processes 165
6.1 Process Description 168
6.2 Steam Jet Ejector 168
6.3 Pressure Survey in a Vacuum Column 170
6.4 Simulation of Vacuum Distillation Unit 172
6.5 Coking 173
6.5.1 Delayed Coking 173
6.5.2 Delayed Coker Yield Prediction 177
6.5.3 Coke Formation 178
6.5.4 Thermodynamics of Coking of Light Hydrocarbons 178
6.5.5 Gas Composition 179
6.6 Fluid Coking 180
6.6.1 Flexi-Coking 181
6.6.2 Contact Coking 183
6.6.3 Coke drums 184
6.6.4 Heavy Coker Gas Oil (HCGO) Production 186
6.6.5 Light Coker Gas Oil (LCGO) Production 187
6.7 Fractionator Overhead System 187
6.8 Coke Drum Operations 188
6.9 Hydraulic Jet Decoking 189
6.10 Uses of Petroleum Coke 190
6.11 Use of Gasification 190
6.12 Sponge coke 191
6.13 Safety and Environmental Considerations 191
6.14 Simulation/Calculations 192
6.15 Visbreaking 193
6.15.1 Visbreaking Reactions 196
6.15.2 Visbreaking Severity 196
6.15.3 Operation and Control 196
6.15.4 Typical Visbreaker Unit 197
6.15.5 Typical Visbreaker Unit with Vacuum Flasher 198
6.15.6 Typical Combination Visbreaker and Thermal Cracker 199
6.15.7 Product Yield 199
6.16 Process Simulation 200
6.17 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 201
References 202
7 Hydroprocessing 203
7.1 Catalytic Conversion Processes 203
Hydrocracking 203
7.1.1 Hydrocracking Chemistry 204
7.1.2 Hydrocracking Reactions 206
7.1.3 Typical hydrocracking reactions 207
7.2 Feed Specifications 210
7.2.1 Space Velocity 211
7.2.2 Reactor Temperature 211
7.2.3 Reactor Pressure 211
7.2.4 Hydrogen Recycle Rate 211
7.2.5 Oil Recycle Ratio 211
7.2.6 Heavy Polynuclear Aromatics 212
7.3 Feed Boiling Range 212
7.4 Catalyst 212
7.4.1 Catalyst Performance 213
7.4.2 Loss of Catalyst Performance 213
7.4.3 Poisoning by Impurities in Feeds or Catalysts 214
7.4.4 The Apparent Catalyst Activity 216
7.5 Poor Gas Distribution 216
7.6 Poor Mixing of Reactants 216
7.7 The Mechanism of Hydrocracking 216
7.8 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Hydrocracking 217
7.9 Process Design, Rating and Performance 220
7.9.1 Operating Temperature and Pressure 221
7.9.2 Optimum Catalyst Size and Shape 221
7.9.3 Pressure drop ( Ž€P) in Tubular/Fixed-Bed Reactors 221
7.9.4 Catalyst Particle Size 223
7.9.5 Vessel Dimensions 224
7.10 Increased Ž€P 226
7.11 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate 230
7.12 Measurement of Performance 231
7.13 Catalyst-bed Temperature Profiles 232
7.14 Factors Affecting Hydrocracking Process Operation 233
7.15 Hydrocracking Correlations 233
7.15.1 Maximum Aviation Turbine Kerosene (ATK) Correlations 235
7.15.2 Process Description 236
7.15.3 Fresh Feed and Recycle Liquid System 239
7.15.4 Liquid and Vapor Separators 241
7.15.5 Recycle Gas Compression and Distribution 242
7.15.6 Hydrogen Distribution 242
7.15.7 Control of the Hydrogen System 242
7.15.8 Reactor Design 242
7.16 Hydrocracker Fractionating Unit 244
7.16.1 Mild Vacuum Column 246
7.16.2 Steam Generation 246
7.17 Operating Variables 247
7.18 Hydrotreating Process 249
7.18.1 Process Description 253
7.18.2 Process Variables 253
7.18.3 Hydrotreating Catalysts 256
7.19 Thermodynamics of Hydrotreating 257
7.20 Reaction Kinetics 259
7.21 Naphtha Hydrotreating 261
7.21.1 Hydrotreating Correlations 261
7.21.2 Middle Distillates Hydrotreating 264
7.21.3 Middle Distillate Hydrotreating Correlations 264
7.22 Atmospheric Residue Desulfurization 266
7.22.1 High-Pressure Separator 268
7.22.2 Low-Pressure Separator 268
7.22.3 Hydrogen Sulfide Removal 268
7.22.4 Recycled Gas Compressor 268
7.22.5 Process Water 268
7.22.6 Fractionation Column 269
.22.7 Operating Conditions of Hydrotreating Processes 269
7.23 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 273
References 273
8 Catalytic Cracking 275
8.1 Introduction 275
8.2 Fluidized Bed Catalytic Cracking 278
8.2.1 Process Description 278
8.3 Modes of Fluidization 285
8.4 Cracking Reactions 286
8.4.1 Secondary Reactions 288
8.5 Thermodynamics of FCC 289
8.5.1 Transport Phenomena, Reaction Patterns and Kinetic models 289
8.5.2 Three- and Four-lump kinetic models 292
8.6 Process Design Variables 294
8.6.1 Process Variables 295
8.6.2 Process Operational Variables 296
8.7 Material and Energy Balances 297
8.7.1 Material Balance 297
8.7.2 Energy Balance 298
8.7 Heat Recovery 299
8.8 FCC Yield Correlations 300
8.9 Estimating potential yields of FCC feed 302
8.10 Pollution Control 306
8.11 New Technology 308
8.11.1 Deep Catalytic Cracking 308
8.11.2 Shell-- Fluid Catalytic Cracking 309
8.11.3 Fluid Catalytic Cracking High Severity 310
8.11.4 Fluid Catalytic Cracking for Maximum Olefins 311
8.12 Refining/Petrochemical Integration 312
8.13 Metallurgy 312
8.14 Troubleshooting for Fluidized Catalyst Cracking Units 312
8.15 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations 314
8.16 Licensors--‚¬„¢ Correlations 315
8.17 Simulation and Modeling Strategy 315
References 318
9 Catalytic Reforming and Isomerization 321
9.1 Introduction 321
9.2 Catalytic Reforming 322
9.3 Feed Characterization 322
9.4 Catalytic Reforming Processes 324
9.4.1 Role of Reformer in the Refinery 325
9.3.2 UOP Continuous Catalytic Regeneration (CCR) Reforming Process 326
9.5 Operations of the Reformer Process 328
9.5.1 Effect of Major Variables in Catalytic Reforming 330
9.6 Catalytic Reformer Reactors 332
9.7 Material Balance in Reforming 333
9.8 Reactions 336
9.8.1 Naphthene Dehydrogenation to Cyclohexanes 336
9.8.2 Dehydrocyclization of Paraffins to Aromatics 337
9.8.3 Dehydroisomerization of Alkylcyclopentanes to Aromatics 337
9.8.4 Isomerization of n-paraffins 337
9.9 Hydrocracking Reactions 338
9.10 Reforming Catalyst 338
9.11 Coke Deposition 339
9.12 Thermodynamics 341
9.13 Kinetic Models 342
9.14 The Reactor Model 344
9.15 Modeling of Naphtha Catalytic Reforming Process 344
9.16 Isomerization 345
9.16.1 Thermodynamics 345
9.16.2 Isomerization Reactions 346
9.17 Sulfolane Extraction Process 346
9.17.1 Sulfolane Extraction Unit (SEU) Corrosion Problems 348
19.17.2 Other Solvents for the Extraction Unit 349
9.18 Aromatic Complex 349
9.18.1 Aromatic Separation 349
9.19 Hydrodealkylation Process 351
9.19.1 Separation of the Reactor Effluents 352
References 353
10 Alkylation and Polymerization Processes 355
10.1 Introduction 355
10.2 Chemistry of Alkylation 356
10.3 Catalysts 358
10.4 Process Variables 359
10.5 Alkylation Feedstocks 361
10.6 Alkylation Products 362
10.7 Sulfuric Acid Alkylation Process 362
10.8 HF Alkylation 363
10.9 Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Alkylation 367
10.10 Polymerization 370
10.11 HF and H2SO4 Mitigating Releases 370
10.12 Corrosion Problems 372
10.12 A New Technology of Alkylation Process Using Ionic Liquid 372
10.14 Chevron --Honeywell UOP Ionic liquid Alkylation 373
10.15 Chemical Release and Flash Fire: A Case Study of the Alkylation Unit at the
Delaware City Refining Company (DCRC) involving Equipment Maintenance Incident. 374
References 378
11 Hydrogen Production and Purification 381
11.1 Hydrogen Requirements in a Refinery 381
11.2 Process Chemistry 382
11.3 High-Temperature Shift Conversion 384
11.4 Low-Temperature Shift Conversion 384
11.5 Gas Purification 384
11.6 Purification of Hydrogen Product 385
11.7 Hydrogen Distribution System 386
11.8 Off-Gas Hydrogen Recovery 387
11.9 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) unit 387
11.10 Refinery Hydrogen Management 391
11.11 Hydrogen Pinch Studies 393
References 395
12 Gas Processing and Acid Gas Removal 397
12.1 Introduction 397
12.2 Diesel Hydrodesulfurization (DHDS) 399
12.3 Hydrotreating Reactions 399
12.4 Gas Processing 404
12.4.1 Natural Gas 404
12.4.2 Gas Processing Methods 405
12.4.3 Reaction Gas Processes 406
12.4.4 Sweetening Process 406
12.4.5 MEROX Process 406
12.5 Sulfur Management 407
12.5.1 Sulfur Recovery Processes 409
12.5.2 Tail Gas Clean Up 417
12.6 Physical Solvent Gas Processes 417
12.6.1
Physical and Chemical Processes 418
12.6.2
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Sulfinol ‚® Process 418
12.7 Carbonate Process 418
12.8 Solution Batch Process 419
12.9 Process Description of Gas Processing using UniSim ‚® Simulation 421
12.10 Gas Dryer (Dehydration) Design 426
12.10.1 The Equations 428
12.10.2
Pressure Drop ( Ž€P) 429
12.10.3 Fouled Bed 429
12.11 Kremser-Brown-Sherwood Method-No Heat of Absorption 431
12.11.1
Absorption: Determine Component Absorption in Fixed Tray Tower
(Adapted in part from Ref. 12) 431
12.11.2
Absorption: Determine the Number of Trays for Specified Product Absorption 433
12.11.3
Stripping: Determine the Number of Theoretical Trays and
Stripping Steam or Gas Rate for a Component Recovery 434
12.11.4
Stripping: Determine Stripping-Medium Rate for a Fixed Recovery 436
12.12 Absorption: Edmister Method 437
12.12.1
Absorption and Stripping Efficiency 443
12.13 Gas Treating Troubleshooting 448
12.13.1
High Exit Gas Dew Point 448
12.13.2
High Glycol Losses 448
12.13.3 Glycol Contamination 448
12.13.4
Poor Glycol Reconcentration 449
12.13.5
Low Glycol Circulation --Glycol Pump 449
12.13.6
High Pressure Drop Across Contactor 449
12.13.7
High Stripping Still Temperature 449
12.13.8
High Reboiler Pressure 449
12.13.9
Firetube Fouling/Hot Spots/Burn Out 449
12.13.10 High Gas Dew Points 449
12.13.11 Cause --Inadequate Glycol Circulation Rate 449
12.13.12 Low Reboiler Temperature 449
12.13.13 Flash Separator Failure 450
12.13.14 Cause --Insufficient Reconcentration of Glycol 450
12.13.15 Cause --Operating Conditions Different from Design 450
12.13.16 Cause --Low Gas Flow Rates 450
12.13.17 High Glycol Loss 450
12.14 Cause --Loss of Glycol Out of Still Column 450
12.15 The ADIP Process 451
12.16 Sour Water Stripping Process 451
References 454
Glossary of Petroleum and Technical Terminology 457
Appendix 547
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BISAC SUBJECT HEADINGS
TEC031030 : TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Power Resources / Fossil Fuels
SCI024000 : SCIENCE / Energy
BUS070040 : BUSINESS & ECONOMICS / Industries / Energy
BIC CODES
THF: Fossil fuel technologies
TDCB: Chemical engineering
TGMF: Mechanics of fluids
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