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Submit a ProposalCoal-Fired Power Generation 2nd Edition
 | By James G. Speight Copyright: 2021 | Status: Published ISBN: 9781119510109 | Hardcover | 785 pages Price: $249 USD  |
One Line Description
Now revised and expanded, this is the most complete and up-to-date handbook on power generation from coal, covering all of today’s new, cleaner methods for creating electricity from coal, the environmental challenges and concerns involved in its production, and developing technologies.
Audience
Any engineer, manager, or technician working in the coal industry
Any engineer, manager, or technician working in the coal industry
Description
Coal accounts for approximately one quarter of world energy consumption and of the coal produced worldwide approximately 65% is shipped to electricity producers and 33% to industrial consumers, with most of the remainder going to consumers in the residential and commercial sectors. The total share of total world energy consumption by coal is expected to increase to almost 30% in 2035.
This book describes the challenges and steps by which electricity is produced form coal and deals with the challenges for removing the environmental objections to the use of coal in future power plants. New technologies are described that could virtually eliminate the sulfur, nitrogen, and mercury pollutants that are released when coal is burned for electricity generation. In addition, technologies for the capture greenhouse gases emitted from coal-fired power plants are described and the means of preventing such emissions from contributing to global warming concerns.
Written by one of the world’s leading energy experts, this volume is a must-have for any engineer, scientist, or student working in this field, providing a valuable reference and guide in a quickly changing field.
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Coal accounts for approximately one quarter of world energy consumption and of the coal produced worldwide approximately 65% is shipped to electricity producers and 33% to industrial consumers, with most of the remainder going to consumers in the residential and commercial sectors. The total share of total world energy consumption by coal is expected to increase to almost 30% in 2035.
This book describes the challenges and steps by which electricity is produced form coal and deals with the challenges for removing the environmental objections to the use of coal in future power plants. New technologies are described that could virtually eliminate the sulfur, nitrogen, and mercury pollutants that are released when coal is burned for electricity generation. In addition, technologies for the capture greenhouse gases emitted from coal-fired power plants are described and the means of preventing such emissions from contributing to global warming concerns.
Written by one of the world’s leading energy experts, this volume is a must-have for any engineer, scientist, or student working in this field, providing a valuable reference and guide in a quickly changing field.
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Supplementary Data
• Details the manner in which coal properties can influence electricity production
• Describes the relevant clean coal technologies in an understandable manner
• Presents a realistic overview of the future of electricity generation from coal
• Documents the role of coal in energy security scenarios
• Details the manner in which coal properties can influence electricity production
• Describes the relevant clean coal technologies in an understandable manner
• Presents a realistic overview of the future of electricity generation from coal
• Documents the role of coal in energy security scenarios
Author / Editor Details
James G. Speight, PhD, has more than forty-five years of experience in energy, environmental science, and ethics. He is the author of more than 65 books in petroleum science, petroleum engineering, biomass and biofuels, and environmental sciences. Although he has always worked in private industry which focused on contract-based work, Dr. Speight has served as Adjunct Professor in the Department of Chemical and Fuels Engineering at the University of Utah and in the Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Petroleum Engineering at the University of Wyoming. In addition, he was a Visiting Professor in the College of Science, University of Mosul, Iraq and has also been a Visiting Professor in Chemical Engineering at the University of Missouri-Columbia, the Technical University of Denmark, and the University of Trinidad and Tobago.
James G. Speight, PhD, has more than forty-five years of experience in energy, environmental science, and ethics. He is the author of more than 65 books in petroleum science, petroleum engineering, biomass and biofuels, and environmental sciences. Although he has always worked in private industry which focused on contract-based work, Dr. Speight has served as Adjunct Professor in the Department of Chemical and Fuels Engineering at the University of Utah and in the Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Petroleum Engineering at the University of Wyoming. In addition, he was a Visiting Professor in the College of Science, University of Mosul, Iraq and has also been a Visiting Professor in Chemical Engineering at the University of Missouri-Columbia, the Technical University of Denmark, and the University of Trinidad and Tobago.
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Table of Contents
Preface xvii
Part I: Origin and Properties 1
1 History, Occurrence, and Resources 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Origin of Coal 8
1.3 Occurrence 12
1.4 Coal Utilization and Coal Types 14
1.4.1 Lignite 18
1.4.2 Subbituminous Coal 19
1.4.3 Bituminous Coal 20
1.4.4 Anthracite 21
1.5 Resources 22
1.6 Reserves 26
1.6.1 Proven Reserves 26
1.6.2 Inferred Reserves 29
1.6.3 Potential Reserves 29
1.6.4 Undiscovered Reserves 29
1.6.5 Other Definitions 31
1.7 Energy Independence 31
References 33
2 Classification 37
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Nomenclature of Coal 39
2.3 Classification Systems 43
2.3.1 Geological Age 46
2.3.2 Banded Structure 47
2.3.3 Rank 47
2.3.4 Coal Survey 53
2.3.5 International System 54
2.3.6 Coal as an Organic Rock 58
2.3.7 A Hydrocarbon Resource 58
2.4 Coal Petrography 59
2.4.1 Vitrinite Group 61
2.4.2 Liptinite Group 61
2.4.3 Inertinite Group 62
2.5 Correlation of the Various Systems 62
References 65
3 Recovery, Preparation, and Transportation 67
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Coal Recovery 69
3.2.1 Surface Mining 71
3.2.1.1 Strip Mining 73
3.2.1.2 Open Pit Mining 74
3.2.1.3 Contour Mining 74
3.2.1.4 Auger Mining 75
3.2.1.5 Mountain Top Removal 75
3.2.2 Underground Mining 76
3.2.3 Mine Decommissioning and Closure 77
3.3 Coal Preparation 78
3.4 Size Reduction 87
3.4.1 Rotary Breaker 90
3.4.2 Roll Crusher 90
3.4.3 Hammer Mill 90
3.4.4 Impactor 91
3.4.5 Tumbler 91
3.5 Coal Cleaning 92
3.5.1 Effect of Composition and Rank 93
3.5.2 Methods 93
3.5.2.1 Dense Media Washing 94
3.5.2.2 Pneumatic Cleaning 95
3.5.2.3 Jig-Table Washing 96
3.5.2.4 Water Clarification 96
3.5.2.5 Other Processes 96
3.6 Coal Drying 98
3.6.1 Rotary Dryers 101
3.6.2 Fluidized Bed Dryers 101
3.6.3 Microwave Dryers 102
3.6.4 Screw Conveyor Dryers 103
3.6.5 Superheated Steam Dryer 103
3.7 Desulfurization 104
3.8 Transportation 105
3.8.1 Unit Train 106
3.8.2 Barge 107
3.8.3 Pipeline 107
3.8.4 Truck 108
3.8.5 Ocean 108
3.8.6 Conveyer Belt 109
References 109
4 Storage 113
4.1 Introduction 113
4.2 Stockpiling 115
4.2.1 Stockpile Construction 116
4.2.1.1 The Windrow Method 117
4.2.1.2 The Cone Shell Method 117
4.2.1.3 The Chevron Method 118
4.2.2 Stockpile Management 118
4.2.3 Coal Mixing, Homogenization, and Blending 120
4.3 Effect of Storage 122
4.3.1 Long-Term Storage 122
4.3.2 Short-Term Storage 123
4.3.3 Disadvantages 123
4.4 Spontaneous Ignition 124
4.4.1 Oxidation and Rank 129
4.4.2 Pyrite and Other Minerals 131
4.4.3 Coal Size and Stockpile Ventilation 131
4.4.4 Moisture Content 132
4.4.5 Time Factor 133
4.5 Mechanism of Spontaneous Ignition 134
4.6 Preventing Spontaneous Ignition 137
References 138
5 General Properties 143
5.1 Introduction 143
5.2 Sampling 149
5.2.1 Methods 151
5.2.2 In Situ Sampling 152
5.2.3 Ex Situ Sampling 152
5.3 Proximate Analysis 154
5.3.1 Moisture 156
5.3.2 Natural Bed Moisture 157
5.3.3 Volatile Matter 160
5.3.4 Ash 161
5.3.5 Fixed Carbon 167
5.4 Ultimate Analysis 167
5.4.1 Carbon and Hydrogen 168
5.4.2 Nitrogen 169
5.4.3 Oxygen 169
5.4.4 Sulfur 170
5.4.5 Chlorine 171
5.4.6 Mercury 172
5.4.7 Minerals and Trace Elements 173
5.5 Calorific Value 174
5.6 Reporting Coal Analyses 176
References 180
6 Physical, Mechanical, Thermal, and Electrical Properties 187
6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 Physical Properties 190
6.2.1 Coal Type 191
6.2.2 Density and Specific Gravity 193
6.2.3 Petrographic Analysis 196
6.2.4 Porosity and Surface Area 197
6.2.5 Reflectivity 199
6.2.6 Refractive Index 200
6.3 Mechanical Properties 200
6.3.1 Strength 201
6.3.2 Hardness 201
6.3.3 Friability 202
6.3.4 Grindability 203
6.3.5 Dustiness Index 204
6.4 Thermal Properties 207
6.4.1 Heat Capacity 208
6.4.2 Thermal Conductivity 209
6.4.3 Plastic and Agglutinating Properties 210
6.4.4 Agglomerating Index 212
6.4.5 Free Swelling Index 212
6.4.6 Ash Fusion Temperature 213
6.5 Electrical Properties 214
6.5.1 Electrical Conductivity 214
6.5.2 Dielectric Constant 216
6.5.3 Dielectric Strength 217
6.6 Epilog 217
References 217
Part II: Power Generation 223
7 Combustion 225
7.1 Introduction 225
7.2 General Aspects 230
7.2.1 Coal Devolatilization and Combustion of Volatile Matter 230
7.2.2 Char Combustion 231
7.3 Chemistry and Physics 232
7.3.1 Influence of Coal Quality 236
7.3.2 Mechanism 239
7.3.3 Ignition 240
7.3.4 Surface Effects 241
7.3.5 Reaction Rates 242
7.3.6 Heat Balance 243
7.3.7 Soot Formation 244
7.3.8 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation 245
7.3.9 Slagging and Fouling 246
7.3.10 Additives and Catalysts 246
7.3.11 Excess Air 248
7.3.12 Coal/Air Transport 248
7.4 Catalytic Combustion 249
7.5 Fuels 249
7.5.1 Coal 250
7.5.2 Coal Blends 252
7.5.3 Coal-Oil Fuels 256
7.5.4 Coal-Water Fuels 258
7.5.5 Coal-Biomass Fuels 262
References 269
8 Combustion Systems 275
8.1 Introduction 275
8.2 Combustion Systems 278
8.2.1 Stoker Systems 280
8.2.2 Fixed-Bed Systems 281
8.2.2.1 Fixed- and Moving-Grate Systems 281
8.2.2.2 Up-Draught Combustion 284
8.2.2.3 Down-Draught Combustion 286
8.2.3 Fluidized Beds 287
8.2.4 Entrained Systems 296
8.2.5 Miscellaneous Systems 298
8.2.5.1 Advanced Power Systems 298
8.2.5.2 Colloidal Fuel-Fired Units 300
8.2.5.3 Cyclone Furnaces 300
8.2.5.4 Ignifluid System 301
8.2.5.5 Submerged Combustion Systems 301
8.2.5.6 Suspension-Bed Combustion 303
8.3 Fuel Feeders 303
References 304
9 Gasification 307
9.1 Introduction 307
9.2 General Aspects 309
9.2.1 Feedstock Quality 312
9.2.2 Mixed Feedstocks 314
9.2.2.1 Coal-Biomass Feedstocks 315
9.2.2.2 Coal-Waste Feedstocks 316
9.2.2.3 Reactors 319
9.2.3 Bulk Density 319
9.2.4 Reactivity 319
9.2.5 Energy Content 320
9.2.6 Moisture Content 321
9.2.7 Particle Size and Distribution 321
9.2.8 Mineral Matter Content and Ash Production 322
9.2.9 Devolatilization and Volatile Matter Production 323
9.2.10 Char Gasification 324
9.3 Chemistry and Physics 325
9.3.1 Influence of Coal Quality 326
9.3.2 Mechanism 328
9.3.3 Primary Gasification 332
9.3.4 Secondary Gasification 332
9.3.5 Shift Conversion 332
9.3.6 Hydrogasification 332
9.3.7 Methanation 333
9.4 Catalytic Gasification 334
9.5 Plasma Gasification 335
9.6 Gaseous Products 336
9.6.1 Low-Btu Gas 337
9.6.2 Medium-Btu Gas 337
9.6.3 High-Btu Gas 338
9.6.4 Methane 339
9.6.5 Hydrogen 339
9.6.6 Other Products 341
9.7 Underground Gasification 341
References 344
10 Gasification Systems 349
10.1 Introduction 349
10.2 Gasifier Types 352
10.2.1 Fixed-Bed Gasifier 354
10.2.2 Fluidized-Bed Gasifier 355
10.2.3 Entrained-Bed Gasifier 356
10.2.4 Molten Salt Gasifier 357
10.3 Fixed-Bed Processes 358
10.3.1 Foster-Wheeler Stoic Process 360
10.3.2 Lurgi Process 361
10.3.3 Wellman-Galusha Process 362
10.3.4 Woodall-Duckham Process 364
10.4 Fluidized-Bed Processes 367
10.4.1 Agglomerating Burner Process 370
10.4.2 Carbon Dioxide Acceptor Process 370
10.4.3 Coalcon Process 372
10.4.4 The COED/COGAS Process 373
10.4.5 Exxon Catalytic Gasification Process 374
10.4.6 The Hydrane Process 374
10.4.7 The Hygas Process 375
10.4.8 Pressurized Fluid-Bed Process 377
10.4.9 Synthane Process 378
10.4.10 The U-Gas Process 379
10.4.11 Winkler Process 380
10.5 Entrained-Bed Processes 381
10.5.1 Bi-Gas Process 382
10.5.2 Combustion Engineering Process 383
10.5.3 Koppers-Totzek Process 383
10.5.4 Texaco Process 384
10.6 Molten Salt Processes 386
10.6.1 Atgas Process 387
10.6.2 Pullman-Kellogg Process 388
10.6.3 Rockgas Process 388
10.6.4 Rummel Single-Shaft Process 390
10.7 Other Designs 390
10.7.1 Moving-Grate Gasifier 390
10.7.2 Plasma Gasifier 390
10.7.3 Rotary Kiln Gasifier 392
10.7.4 Shell Coal Gasifier 392
10.7.5 Conoco-Phillips Gasifier 393
10.7.6 Slagging Gasifier 393
10.7.7 Atmospheric and Pressurized Gasifiers 394
10.7.8 Dry Feed and Slurry Feed Gasifiers 395
10.7.9 Air-Blown and Oxygen-Blown Gasifiers 395
10.7.10 Quench versus Heat Recovery 395
10.8 Gasifier-Feedstock Compatibility 396
10.8.1 Feedstock Reactivity 396
10.8.2 Energy Content 398
10.8.3 Moisture Content 398
10.8.4 Production of Volatile Matter 399
10.8.5 Particle Size and Distribution 399
10.8.6 Bulk Density 400
10.8.7 Propensity for Char Formation 400
10.8.8 Mineral Matter Content 400
10.8.9 Ash Yield 400
10.9 Energy Balance and Other Design Options 401
10.10 Underground Gasification 402
10.10.1 Borehole Producer Method 403
10.10.2 Chamber Method 403
10.10.3 Shaftless Method 404
10.10.4 Stream Method 406
References 406
11 Electric Power Generation 409
11.1 Introduction 409
11.2 Electricity From Coal 412
11.2.1 Conventional Power Plant 412
11.2.1.1 Coal Transport and Delivery 413
11.2.1.2 Fuel Preparation 414
11.2.1.3 Feed-Water Heating and De-Aeration 415
11.3 Steam Generation 415
11.3.1 The Boiler 417
11.3.1.1 Water Tube Boiler 418
11.3.1.2 Packaged Boiler 418
11.3.1.3 Fluidized-Bed Combustion Boiler 418
11.3.1.4 Atmospheric Fluidized-Bed Combustion Boiler 419
11.3.1.5 Pressurized Fluidized-Bed Combustion Boiler 419
11.3.1.6 Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized-Bed
Combustion Boiler 419
11.3.1.7 Stoker-Fired Boiler 420
11.3.1.8 Pulverized Fuel Boiler 420
11.3.1.9 Waste Heat Boiler 421
11.3.2 The Steam Turbines and the Electrical Generator 421
11.3.3 Steam Condensing and Cooling Towers 423
11.3.3.1 Supercritical Steam Generators 424
11.4 Control of Emissions 425
11.4.1 Carbon Dioxide Emissions 425
11.4.2 Particulate Matter Emissions 426
11.4.3 Sulfur Dioxide Emissions 426
11.4.4 Mercury Emissions 427
11.5 Power Plant Efficiency 428
11.6 Combined Cycle Generation 432
11.6.1 Cogeneration 433
11.6.2 IGCC Technology 433
References 435
12 Gas Cleaning 437
12.1 Introduction 437
12.2 General Aspects 437
12.3 Air Pollution Control Devices 445
12.3.1 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions 446
12.3.2 Sulfur Oxide Emissions 446
12.4 Particulate Matter Removal 449
12.4.1 Electrostatic Precipitators 450
12.4.2 Fabric Filters 451
12.4.3 Granular-Bed Filters 451
12.4.4 Scrubber Systems 452
12.4.4.1 Wet Systems 452
12.4.4.2 Dry systems 455
12.4.4.3 Semi-Dry Systems 456
12.4.5 Cyclones 457
12.5 Acid Gas Removal 458
12.6 Removal of Sulfur-Containing Gases 462
12.7 Removal of Nitrogen-Containing Gases 465
12.8 Environmental Legislation 467
References 469
13 Clean Coal Technologies for Power Generation 473
13.1 Introduction 473
13.2 Historical Perspectives 480
13.3 Modern Perspectives 481
13.4 Clean Coal Technology 483
13.4.1 Precombustion Cleaning 486
13 4.1.1 Physical Cleaning 487
13.4.1.2 Chemical/Biological Cleaning 487
13.4.1.3 Fuel Switching 487
13.4.2 Cleaning During Combustion 488
13.4.2.1 Advanced Combustion 488
13.4.2.2 Fluidized-Bed Combustion 490
13.4.3 Post-Combustion Cleaning 492
13.4.3.1 Sulfur Oxide Emissions 492
13.4.3.2 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions 493
13.4.3.3 Fly Ash Emissions 494
13.4.3.4 Mercury 495
13.4.3.5 Particulate Matter 498
13.4.3.6 Advanced Post-Combustion Cleaning 498
13.4.4 Conversion and Added-Value Products 499
13.4.4.1 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Systems 499
13.4.4.2 Mild Gasification 501
13.4.4.3 Coal Liquefaction 501
13.4.4.4 Biomass Cofiring 502
13.5 Managing Wastes from Coal Use 504
13.6 Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration 506
References 514
14 Environmental Issues 519
14.1 Introduction 519
14.2 Coal Preparation 521
14.2.1 Water Treatment 522
14.2.2 Dust Control 522
14.2.3 Noise Control 523
14.3 Transportation and Storage 523
14.3.1 Transportation 523
14.3.2 Storage 524
14.4 Combustion 525
14.4.1 Effect of Coal Type 526
14.4.2 Gaseous Effluents 527
14.4.2.1 Carbon Emissions 528
14.4.2.2 Sulfur Oxides 528
14.4.2.3 Nitrogen Oxides 529
14.5 Gasification 532
14.6 Power Plant Waste 536
14.6.1 Coal Ash 539
14.6.1.1 Fly Ash 542
14.6.1.2 Bottom Ash 545
14.6.1.3 Bottom Slag 547
14.6.1.4 Properties and Uses of Ash and Slag 549
14.6.2 Flue Gas Desulfurization Waste 551
14.6.3 Waste Heat 552
14.7 The Future 553
References 556
Part III: Alternative Feedstocks and Energy Security 559
15 Alternate Feedstocks 561
15.1 Introduction 561
15.2 Viscous Feedstocks 562
15.2.1 Crude Oil Residua 562
15.2.2 Extra Heavy Oil and Tar Sand Bitumen 566
15.2.2.1 Extra Heavy Oil 566
15.2.2.2 Tar Sand Bitumen 567
15.2.3 Other Feedstocks 568
15.2.3.1 Refinery Coke 569
15.2.3.2 Solvent Deasphalter Bottoms 570
15.2.3.3 Asphalt, Tar, and Pitch 571
15.2.3.4 Black Liquor 572
15.2.3.5 Used Motor Oil 574
15.3 Biomass 575
15.3.1 Carbohydrates 584
15.3.2 Vegetable Oils 584
15.3.3 Plant Fibers 586
15.3.4 Energy Crops 586
15.3.4.1 Cordgrass and Switchgrass 589
15.3.4.2 Jerusalem Artichoke 590
15.3.4.3 Miscanthus 591
15.3.4.4 Reed Plants 592
15.3.4.5 Residual Herbaceous Biomass 592
15.3.4.6 Short Rotation Coppice 593
15.3.4.7 Sorghum 593
15.3.5 Wood 594
15.3.5.1 Types of Wood 595
15.3.5.2 Composition and Properties 596
15.3.5.3 Chemical Composition 597
15.3.6 Chemistry and Uses 602
15.4 Waste 605
15.4.1 Domestic and Industrial Waste 608
15.3.2 Effects of Waste 608
References 610
16 Combustion of Alternate Feedstocks 613
16.1 Introduction 613
16.2 Viscous Feedstocks 615
16.3 Biomass 619
16.3.1 Properties and Combustion 622
16.3.2 Combustors 623
16.3.3 Biomass for Electricity Generation 623
16.3.4 Combustion Systems 625
16.3.4.1 Pile Combustion 626
16.3.4.2 Stoker Combustion 626
16.3.4.3 Suspension Combustion 627
16.3.4.4 Fluidized-Bed Combustion 627
16.3.4.5 Direct Combustion System 628
16.3.5 Environmental Issues 629
16.3.5.1 Ash Formation 629
16.3.5.2 Other Pollutants 630
16.4 Solid Waste 632
16.4.1 Electricity Production 634
16.4.2 Environmental Issues 637
References 638
17 Gasification of Alternate Feedstocks 641
17.1 Introduction 641
17.2 Viscous Feedstocks 643
17.2.1 Crude Oil Residual 644
17.2.2 Other Feedstocks 648
17.2.2.1 Solvent Deasphalter Bottoms 649
17.2.2.2 Asphalt, Tar, and Pitch 649
17.2.2.3 Black Liquor 651
17.3 Biomass 651
17.4 Solid Waste 656
17.4.1 Waste Types 659
17.4.1.1 Solid Waste 659
17.4.1.2 Municipal Solid Waste 660
17.4.1.3 Industrial Solid Waste 660
17.4.1.4 Biowaste 661
17.4.1.5 Biomedical Waste 661
17.4.2 Waste to Energy 662
17.5 Process Products 667
17.5.1 Synthesis Gas 667
17.5.2 Carbon Dioxide 668
17.5.3 Tar 668
17.5.4 Particulate Matter 670
17.5.5 Halogens/Acid Gases 670
17.5.6 Heavy Metals 671
17.5.7 Alkalis 671
17.5.8 Slag 672
References 673
18 Coal and Energy Security 679
18.1 Introduction 679
18.2 Energy Security 683
18.3 The Future of Coal 687
18.3.1 Environmental Issues 688
18.3.1.1 Carbon Dioxide 690
18.3.1.2 Air Emissions 690
18.3.1.3 Solids Generation 690
18.3.1.4 Water Use 690
18.3.2 Electric Power Generation 691
18.3.3 Hydrogen from Coal 692
18.4 Sustainable Development 694
References 701
Conversion Factors 705
Glossary 709
About the Author 753
Index 755
Back to Top
Preface xvii
Part I: Origin and Properties 1
1 History, Occurrence, and Resources 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Origin of Coal 8
1.3 Occurrence 12
1.4 Coal Utilization and Coal Types 14
1.4.1 Lignite 18
1.4.2 Subbituminous Coal 19
1.4.3 Bituminous Coal 20
1.4.4 Anthracite 21
1.5 Resources 22
1.6 Reserves 26
1.6.1 Proven Reserves 26
1.6.2 Inferred Reserves 29
1.6.3 Potential Reserves 29
1.6.4 Undiscovered Reserves 29
1.6.5 Other Definitions 31
1.7 Energy Independence 31
References 33
2 Classification 37
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Nomenclature of Coal 39
2.3 Classification Systems 43
2.3.1 Geological Age 46
2.3.2 Banded Structure 47
2.3.3 Rank 47
2.3.4 Coal Survey 53
2.3.5 International System 54
2.3.6 Coal as an Organic Rock 58
2.3.7 A Hydrocarbon Resource 58
2.4 Coal Petrography 59
2.4.1 Vitrinite Group 61
2.4.2 Liptinite Group 61
2.4.3 Inertinite Group 62
2.5 Correlation of the Various Systems 62
References 65
3 Recovery, Preparation, and Transportation 67
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Coal Recovery 69
3.2.1 Surface Mining 71
3.2.1.1 Strip Mining 73
3.2.1.2 Open Pit Mining 74
3.2.1.3 Contour Mining 74
3.2.1.4 Auger Mining 75
3.2.1.5 Mountain Top Removal 75
3.2.2 Underground Mining 76
3.2.3 Mine Decommissioning and Closure 77
3.3 Coal Preparation 78
3.4 Size Reduction 87
3.4.1 Rotary Breaker 90
3.4.2 Roll Crusher 90
3.4.3 Hammer Mill 90
3.4.4 Impactor 91
3.4.5 Tumbler 91
3.5 Coal Cleaning 92
3.5.1 Effect of Composition and Rank 93
3.5.2 Methods 93
3.5.2.1 Dense Media Washing 94
3.5.2.2 Pneumatic Cleaning 95
3.5.2.3 Jig-Table Washing 96
3.5.2.4 Water Clarification 96
3.5.2.5 Other Processes 96
3.6 Coal Drying 98
3.6.1 Rotary Dryers 101
3.6.2 Fluidized Bed Dryers 101
3.6.3 Microwave Dryers 102
3.6.4 Screw Conveyor Dryers 103
3.6.5 Superheated Steam Dryer 103
3.7 Desulfurization 104
3.8 Transportation 105
3.8.1 Unit Train 106
3.8.2 Barge 107
3.8.3 Pipeline 107
3.8.4 Truck 108
3.8.5 Ocean 108
3.8.6 Conveyer Belt 109
References 109
4 Storage 113
4.1 Introduction 113
4.2 Stockpiling 115
4.2.1 Stockpile Construction 116
4.2.1.1 The Windrow Method 117
4.2.1.2 The Cone Shell Method 117
4.2.1.3 The Chevron Method 118
4.2.2 Stockpile Management 118
4.2.3 Coal Mixing, Homogenization, and Blending 120
4.3 Effect of Storage 122
4.3.1 Long-Term Storage 122
4.3.2 Short-Term Storage 123
4.3.3 Disadvantages 123
4.4 Spontaneous Ignition 124
4.4.1 Oxidation and Rank 129
4.4.2 Pyrite and Other Minerals 131
4.4.3 Coal Size and Stockpile Ventilation 131
4.4.4 Moisture Content 132
4.4.5 Time Factor 133
4.5 Mechanism of Spontaneous Ignition 134
4.6 Preventing Spontaneous Ignition 137
References 138
5 General Properties 143
5.1 Introduction 143
5.2 Sampling 149
5.2.1 Methods 151
5.2.2 In Situ Sampling 152
5.2.3 Ex Situ Sampling 152
5.3 Proximate Analysis 154
5.3.1 Moisture 156
5.3.2 Natural Bed Moisture 157
5.3.3 Volatile Matter 160
5.3.4 Ash 161
5.3.5 Fixed Carbon 167
5.4 Ultimate Analysis 167
5.4.1 Carbon and Hydrogen 168
5.4.2 Nitrogen 169
5.4.3 Oxygen 169
5.4.4 Sulfur 170
5.4.5 Chlorine 171
5.4.6 Mercury 172
5.4.7 Minerals and Trace Elements 173
5.5 Calorific Value 174
5.6 Reporting Coal Analyses 176
References 180
6 Physical, Mechanical, Thermal, and Electrical Properties 187
6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 Physical Properties 190
6.2.1 Coal Type 191
6.2.2 Density and Specific Gravity 193
6.2.3 Petrographic Analysis 196
6.2.4 Porosity and Surface Area 197
6.2.5 Reflectivity 199
6.2.6 Refractive Index 200
6.3 Mechanical Properties 200
6.3.1 Strength 201
6.3.2 Hardness 201
6.3.3 Friability 202
6.3.4 Grindability 203
6.3.5 Dustiness Index 204
6.4 Thermal Properties 207
6.4.1 Heat Capacity 208
6.4.2 Thermal Conductivity 209
6.4.3 Plastic and Agglutinating Properties 210
6.4.4 Agglomerating Index 212
6.4.5 Free Swelling Index 212
6.4.6 Ash Fusion Temperature 213
6.5 Electrical Properties 214
6.5.1 Electrical Conductivity 214
6.5.2 Dielectric Constant 216
6.5.3 Dielectric Strength 217
6.6 Epilog 217
References 217
Part II: Power Generation 223
7 Combustion 225
7.1 Introduction 225
7.2 General Aspects 230
7.2.1 Coal Devolatilization and Combustion of Volatile Matter 230
7.2.2 Char Combustion 231
7.3 Chemistry and Physics 232
7.3.1 Influence of Coal Quality 236
7.3.2 Mechanism 239
7.3.3 Ignition 240
7.3.4 Surface Effects 241
7.3.5 Reaction Rates 242
7.3.6 Heat Balance 243
7.3.7 Soot Formation 244
7.3.8 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation 245
7.3.9 Slagging and Fouling 246
7.3.10 Additives and Catalysts 246
7.3.11 Excess Air 248
7.3.12 Coal/Air Transport 248
7.4 Catalytic Combustion 249
7.5 Fuels 249
7.5.1 Coal 250
7.5.2 Coal Blends 252
7.5.3 Coal-Oil Fuels 256
7.5.4 Coal-Water Fuels 258
7.5.5 Coal-Biomass Fuels 262
References 269
8 Combustion Systems 275
8.1 Introduction 275
8.2 Combustion Systems 278
8.2.1 Stoker Systems 280
8.2.2 Fixed-Bed Systems 281
8.2.2.1 Fixed- and Moving-Grate Systems 281
8.2.2.2 Up-Draught Combustion 284
8.2.2.3 Down-Draught Combustion 286
8.2.3 Fluidized Beds 287
8.2.4 Entrained Systems 296
8.2.5 Miscellaneous Systems 298
8.2.5.1 Advanced Power Systems 298
8.2.5.2 Colloidal Fuel-Fired Units 300
8.2.5.3 Cyclone Furnaces 300
8.2.5.4 Ignifluid System 301
8.2.5.5 Submerged Combustion Systems 301
8.2.5.6 Suspension-Bed Combustion 303
8.3 Fuel Feeders 303
References 304
9 Gasification 307
9.1 Introduction 307
9.2 General Aspects 309
9.2.1 Feedstock Quality 312
9.2.2 Mixed Feedstocks 314
9.2.2.1 Coal-Biomass Feedstocks 315
9.2.2.2 Coal-Waste Feedstocks 316
9.2.2.3 Reactors 319
9.2.3 Bulk Density 319
9.2.4 Reactivity 319
9.2.5 Energy Content 320
9.2.6 Moisture Content 321
9.2.7 Particle Size and Distribution 321
9.2.8 Mineral Matter Content and Ash Production 322
9.2.9 Devolatilization and Volatile Matter Production 323
9.2.10 Char Gasification 324
9.3 Chemistry and Physics 325
9.3.1 Influence of Coal Quality 326
9.3.2 Mechanism 328
9.3.3 Primary Gasification 332
9.3.4 Secondary Gasification 332
9.3.5 Shift Conversion 332
9.3.6 Hydrogasification 332
9.3.7 Methanation 333
9.4 Catalytic Gasification 334
9.5 Plasma Gasification 335
9.6 Gaseous Products 336
9.6.1 Low-Btu Gas 337
9.6.2 Medium-Btu Gas 337
9.6.3 High-Btu Gas 338
9.6.4 Methane 339
9.6.5 Hydrogen 339
9.6.6 Other Products 341
9.7 Underground Gasification 341
References 344
10 Gasification Systems 349
10.1 Introduction 349
10.2 Gasifier Types 352
10.2.1 Fixed-Bed Gasifier 354
10.2.2 Fluidized-Bed Gasifier 355
10.2.3 Entrained-Bed Gasifier 356
10.2.4 Molten Salt Gasifier 357
10.3 Fixed-Bed Processes 358
10.3.1 Foster-Wheeler Stoic Process 360
10.3.2 Lurgi Process 361
10.3.3 Wellman-Galusha Process 362
10.3.4 Woodall-Duckham Process 364
10.4 Fluidized-Bed Processes 367
10.4.1 Agglomerating Burner Process 370
10.4.2 Carbon Dioxide Acceptor Process 370
10.4.3 Coalcon Process 372
10.4.4 The COED/COGAS Process 373
10.4.5 Exxon Catalytic Gasification Process 374
10.4.6 The Hydrane Process 374
10.4.7 The Hygas Process 375
10.4.8 Pressurized Fluid-Bed Process 377
10.4.9 Synthane Process 378
10.4.10 The U-Gas Process 379
10.4.11 Winkler Process 380
10.5 Entrained-Bed Processes 381
10.5.1 Bi-Gas Process 382
10.5.2 Combustion Engineering Process 383
10.5.3 Koppers-Totzek Process 383
10.5.4 Texaco Process 384
10.6 Molten Salt Processes 386
10.6.1 Atgas Process 387
10.6.2 Pullman-Kellogg Process 388
10.6.3 Rockgas Process 388
10.6.4 Rummel Single-Shaft Process 390
10.7 Other Designs 390
10.7.1 Moving-Grate Gasifier 390
10.7.2 Plasma Gasifier 390
10.7.3 Rotary Kiln Gasifier 392
10.7.4 Shell Coal Gasifier 392
10.7.5 Conoco-Phillips Gasifier 393
10.7.6 Slagging Gasifier 393
10.7.7 Atmospheric and Pressurized Gasifiers 394
10.7.8 Dry Feed and Slurry Feed Gasifiers 395
10.7.9 Air-Blown and Oxygen-Blown Gasifiers 395
10.7.10 Quench versus Heat Recovery 395
10.8 Gasifier-Feedstock Compatibility 396
10.8.1 Feedstock Reactivity 396
10.8.2 Energy Content 398
10.8.3 Moisture Content 398
10.8.4 Production of Volatile Matter 399
10.8.5 Particle Size and Distribution 399
10.8.6 Bulk Density 400
10.8.7 Propensity for Char Formation 400
10.8.8 Mineral Matter Content 400
10.8.9 Ash Yield 400
10.9 Energy Balance and Other Design Options 401
10.10 Underground Gasification 402
10.10.1 Borehole Producer Method 403
10.10.2 Chamber Method 403
10.10.3 Shaftless Method 404
10.10.4 Stream Method 406
References 406
11 Electric Power Generation 409
11.1 Introduction 409
11.2 Electricity From Coal 412
11.2.1 Conventional Power Plant 412
11.2.1.1 Coal Transport and Delivery 413
11.2.1.2 Fuel Preparation 414
11.2.1.3 Feed-Water Heating and De-Aeration 415
11.3 Steam Generation 415
11.3.1 The Boiler 417
11.3.1.1 Water Tube Boiler 418
11.3.1.2 Packaged Boiler 418
11.3.1.3 Fluidized-Bed Combustion Boiler 418
11.3.1.4 Atmospheric Fluidized-Bed Combustion Boiler 419
11.3.1.5 Pressurized Fluidized-Bed Combustion Boiler 419
11.3.1.6 Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized-Bed
Combustion Boiler 419
11.3.1.7 Stoker-Fired Boiler 420
11.3.1.8 Pulverized Fuel Boiler 420
11.3.1.9 Waste Heat Boiler 421
11.3.2 The Steam Turbines and the Electrical Generator 421
11.3.3 Steam Condensing and Cooling Towers 423
11.3.3.1 Supercritical Steam Generators 424
11.4 Control of Emissions 425
11.4.1 Carbon Dioxide Emissions 425
11.4.2 Particulate Matter Emissions 426
11.4.3 Sulfur Dioxide Emissions 426
11.4.4 Mercury Emissions 427
11.5 Power Plant Efficiency 428
11.6 Combined Cycle Generation 432
11.6.1 Cogeneration 433
11.6.2 IGCC Technology 433
References 435
12 Gas Cleaning 437
12.1 Introduction 437
12.2 General Aspects 437
12.3 Air Pollution Control Devices 445
12.3.1 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions 446
12.3.2 Sulfur Oxide Emissions 446
12.4 Particulate Matter Removal 449
12.4.1 Electrostatic Precipitators 450
12.4.2 Fabric Filters 451
12.4.3 Granular-Bed Filters 451
12.4.4 Scrubber Systems 452
12.4.4.1 Wet Systems 452
12.4.4.2 Dry systems 455
12.4.4.3 Semi-Dry Systems 456
12.4.5 Cyclones 457
12.5 Acid Gas Removal 458
12.6 Removal of Sulfur-Containing Gases 462
12.7 Removal of Nitrogen-Containing Gases 465
12.8 Environmental Legislation 467
References 469
13 Clean Coal Technologies for Power Generation 473
13.1 Introduction 473
13.2 Historical Perspectives 480
13.3 Modern Perspectives 481
13.4 Clean Coal Technology 483
13.4.1 Precombustion Cleaning 486
13 4.1.1 Physical Cleaning 487
13.4.1.2 Chemical/Biological Cleaning 487
13.4.1.3 Fuel Switching 487
13.4.2 Cleaning During Combustion 488
13.4.2.1 Advanced Combustion 488
13.4.2.2 Fluidized-Bed Combustion 490
13.4.3 Post-Combustion Cleaning 492
13.4.3.1 Sulfur Oxide Emissions 492
13.4.3.2 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions 493
13.4.3.3 Fly Ash Emissions 494
13.4.3.4 Mercury 495
13.4.3.5 Particulate Matter 498
13.4.3.6 Advanced Post-Combustion Cleaning 498
13.4.4 Conversion and Added-Value Products 499
13.4.4.1 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Systems 499
13.4.4.2 Mild Gasification 501
13.4.4.3 Coal Liquefaction 501
13.4.4.4 Biomass Cofiring 502
13.5 Managing Wastes from Coal Use 504
13.6 Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration 506
References 514
14 Environmental Issues 519
14.1 Introduction 519
14.2 Coal Preparation 521
14.2.1 Water Treatment 522
14.2.2 Dust Control 522
14.2.3 Noise Control 523
14.3 Transportation and Storage 523
14.3.1 Transportation 523
14.3.2 Storage 524
14.4 Combustion 525
14.4.1 Effect of Coal Type 526
14.4.2 Gaseous Effluents 527
14.4.2.1 Carbon Emissions 528
14.4.2.2 Sulfur Oxides 528
14.4.2.3 Nitrogen Oxides 529
14.5 Gasification 532
14.6 Power Plant Waste 536
14.6.1 Coal Ash 539
14.6.1.1 Fly Ash 542
14.6.1.2 Bottom Ash 545
14.6.1.3 Bottom Slag 547
14.6.1.4 Properties and Uses of Ash and Slag 549
14.6.2 Flue Gas Desulfurization Waste 551
14.6.3 Waste Heat 552
14.7 The Future 553
References 556
Part III: Alternative Feedstocks and Energy Security 559
15 Alternate Feedstocks 561
15.1 Introduction 561
15.2 Viscous Feedstocks 562
15.2.1 Crude Oil Residua 562
15.2.2 Extra Heavy Oil and Tar Sand Bitumen 566
15.2.2.1 Extra Heavy Oil 566
15.2.2.2 Tar Sand Bitumen 567
15.2.3 Other Feedstocks 568
15.2.3.1 Refinery Coke 569
15.2.3.2 Solvent Deasphalter Bottoms 570
15.2.3.3 Asphalt, Tar, and Pitch 571
15.2.3.4 Black Liquor 572
15.2.3.5 Used Motor Oil 574
15.3 Biomass 575
15.3.1 Carbohydrates 584
15.3.2 Vegetable Oils 584
15.3.3 Plant Fibers 586
15.3.4 Energy Crops 586
15.3.4.1 Cordgrass and Switchgrass 589
15.3.4.2 Jerusalem Artichoke 590
15.3.4.3 Miscanthus 591
15.3.4.4 Reed Plants 592
15.3.4.5 Residual Herbaceous Biomass 592
15.3.4.6 Short Rotation Coppice 593
15.3.4.7 Sorghum 593
15.3.5 Wood 594
15.3.5.1 Types of Wood 595
15.3.5.2 Composition and Properties 596
15.3.5.3 Chemical Composition 597
15.3.6 Chemistry and Uses 602
15.4 Waste 605
15.4.1 Domestic and Industrial Waste 608
15.3.2 Effects of Waste 608
References 610
16 Combustion of Alternate Feedstocks 613
16.1 Introduction 613
16.2 Viscous Feedstocks 615
16.3 Biomass 619
16.3.1 Properties and Combustion 622
16.3.2 Combustors 623
16.3.3 Biomass for Electricity Generation 623
16.3.4 Combustion Systems 625
16.3.4.1 Pile Combustion 626
16.3.4.2 Stoker Combustion 626
16.3.4.3 Suspension Combustion 627
16.3.4.4 Fluidized-Bed Combustion 627
16.3.4.5 Direct Combustion System 628
16.3.5 Environmental Issues 629
16.3.5.1 Ash Formation 629
16.3.5.2 Other Pollutants 630
16.4 Solid Waste 632
16.4.1 Electricity Production 634
16.4.2 Environmental Issues 637
References 638
17 Gasification of Alternate Feedstocks 641
17.1 Introduction 641
17.2 Viscous Feedstocks 643
17.2.1 Crude Oil Residual 644
17.2.2 Other Feedstocks 648
17.2.2.1 Solvent Deasphalter Bottoms 649
17.2.2.2 Asphalt, Tar, and Pitch 649
17.2.2.3 Black Liquor 651
17.3 Biomass 651
17.4 Solid Waste 656
17.4.1 Waste Types 659
17.4.1.1 Solid Waste 659
17.4.1.2 Municipal Solid Waste 660
17.4.1.3 Industrial Solid Waste 660
17.4.1.4 Biowaste 661
17.4.1.5 Biomedical Waste 661
17.4.2 Waste to Energy 662
17.5 Process Products 667
17.5.1 Synthesis Gas 667
17.5.2 Carbon Dioxide 668
17.5.3 Tar 668
17.5.4 Particulate Matter 670
17.5.5 Halogens/Acid Gases 670
17.5.6 Heavy Metals 671
17.5.7 Alkalis 671
17.5.8 Slag 672
References 673
18 Coal and Energy Security 679
18.1 Introduction 679
18.2 Energy Security 683
18.3 The Future of Coal 687
18.3.1 Environmental Issues 688
18.3.1.1 Carbon Dioxide 690
18.3.1.2 Air Emissions 690
18.3.1.3 Solids Generation 690
18.3.1.4 Water Use 690
18.3.2 Electric Power Generation 691
18.3.3 Hydrogen from Coal 692
18.4 Sustainable Development 694
References 701
Conversion Factors 705
Glossary 709
About the Author 753
Index 755
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BISAC SUBJECT HEADINGS
TEC031030 : TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Power Resources / Fossil Fuels
SCI024000 : SCIENCE / Energy
BUS070040 : BUSINESS & ECONOMICS / Industries / Energy
BIC CODES
THF: Fossil fuel technologies
TDCB: Chemical engineering
RNFY: Energy resources
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