-
Browse Book Series
- Adhesion and Adhesives: Fundamental and Applied Aspects
- Advances in Additive Manufacturing Technologies
- Advances in Antenna, Microwave and Communication Engineering
- Advances in Biofeedstocks and Biofuels
- Advances in Cyber Security
- Advances in Data Engineering and Machine Learning
- Advances in E-Mobility
- Advances in Hydrogen Production and Storage
- Advances in Intelligent and Scientific Computing (AISC)
- Advances in Learning Analytics for Intelligent Cloud-IoT Systems
- Advances in Membrane Processes
- Advances in Nanotechnology and Applications
- Advances in Natural Gas Engineering
- Advances in Pipes and Pipelines
- Advances in Production Engineering
- Advances in Solar Cell Materials and Storage
- Applied Functional Materials
- Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing for Industrial Transformation
- Astrobiology Perspectives on Life in the Universe
- Bioprocessing in Food Science
- Computational Intelligence and Biomedical Engineering
- Concise Introductions to AI and Data Science
- Cyber Systems and Quantum Engineering
- Decentralized Systems and Next-Generation Internet
- Diatoms: Biology and Applications
- Digital Convergence in Engineering Systems
- Emerging Trends in Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- Engineering Systems Design for Sustainable Development
- Fintech in a Sustainable Digital Society
- Industry 5.0 Transformation Applications
- Infectious and Rare Diseases
- Innovations in Materials and Manufacturing
- Machine Learning in Biomedical Science and Healthcare Informatics
- Materials Degradation and Failure
- Mathematics and Computer Science
- Next-Generation Computing and Communication Engineering
- Performability Engineering Series
- Rotating Machinery Fundamentals and Advances
- Studies in Computational Intelligence and Smart Technologies
- Sustainable Computing and Optimization
Browse Subject Areas
For Authors
Submit a ProposalReverse Osmosis
 | Design, Processes, and Applications for Engineers By Jane Kucera Copyright: 2010 | Status: Published ISBN: 9780470618431 | Hardcover | 1 lb 450 pages Price: $195 USD  |
One Line Description
The only comprehensive in-depth coverage of reverse osmosis and the benefits of its use in industrial water management.
Audience
Engineers, Managers, and Operators dealing with industrial water management
Engineers, Managers, and Operators dealing with industrial water management
Description
This is the most comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of the process of reverse osmosis in industrial applications, a technology that is becoming increasingly more important as more and more companies choose to go green. This book covers all of the processes and equipment necessary to design, operate, and troubleshoot reverse osmosis systems, from the fundamental principles of reverse osmosis technology and membranes to the much more advanced engineering principles necessary for designing a reverse osmosis system. Earlier chapters cover the basic principles, the history of reverse osmosis, basic terms and definitions, and essential equipment. The book then goes into pretreatment processes and system design, then, finally, operations and troubleshooting. The author includes a section on the impact of other membrane technologies and even includes a �Frequently Asked Questions� chapter.
Back to Top
Back to TopThis is the most comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of the process of reverse osmosis in industrial applications, a technology that is becoming increasingly more important as more and more companies choose to go green. This book covers all of the processes and equipment necessary to design, operate, and troubleshoot reverse osmosis systems, from the fundamental principles of reverse osmosis technology and membranes to the much more advanced engineering principles necessary for designing a reverse osmosis system. Earlier chapters cover the basic principles, the history of reverse osmosis, basic terms and definitions, and essential equipment. The book then goes into pretreatment processes and system design, then, finally, operations and troubleshooting. The author includes a section on the impact of other membrane technologies and even includes a �Frequently Asked Questions� chapter.
Back to Top
Author / Editor Details
Jane Kucera is a chemical engineer with 25 years of experience in the area of membrane technology. Jane began her work with membranes in the Seawater Laboratory at UCLA where she received her Master of Chemical Engineering degree in 1984. She worked for 7 years with Bend Research, where she worked on water re-use systems for the International Space Station. Ms. Kucera's subsequent career path is a “who's who” of the world's most respected companies working in water treatment, including GE and Siemens. She joined the Nalco Company in 2003, where she is a senior engineer with a variety of responsibilities. She has approximately 40 publications to her credit, including journal articles, presentations, and book chapters.
Jane Kucera is a chemical engineer with 25 years of experience in the area of membrane technology. Jane began her work with membranes in the Seawater Laboratory at UCLA where she received her Master of Chemical Engineering degree in 1984. She worked for 7 years with Bend Research, where she worked on water re-use systems for the International Space Station. Ms. Kucera's subsequent career path is a “who's who” of the world's most respected companies working in water treatment, including GE and Siemens. She joined the Nalco Company in 2003, where she is a senior engineer with a variety of responsibilities. She has approximately 40 publications to her credit, including journal articles, presentations, and book chapters.
Back to Top
Table of Contents
Contents
Preface xvii
PART 1 FUNDAMENTALS
1 Introduction and History of Development 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 Uses of Reverse Osmosis 3
1.1.2 History of Reverse Osmosis Development 5
1.1.3 Recent Advances in RO Membrane Technology 9
1.1.4 Future Advancements 12
References 12
2 Reverse Osmosis Principles 15
2.1 Osmosis 15
2.2 Reverse Osmosis 16
2.3 Dead-End Filtration 17
2.4 Cross-Flow Filtration 18
3 Basic Terms and Defi nitions 21
3.1 Reverse Osmosis System Flow Rating 21
3.2 Recovery 21
3.3 Rejection 23
3.4 Flux 26
3.5 Concentration Polarization 27
3.6 Beta 29
3.7 Fouling 30
3.8 Scaling 33
3.9 Silt Density Index 35
3.10 Langelier Saturation Index 38
References 39
vii
viii Contents
4 Membranes
4.1 Transport Models 41
4.1.1 Solution-Diffusion Model
(non-porous model) 42
4.1.2 Solution --Diffusion Imperfection
Model (porous model) 44
4.1.3 Finely-Porous Model
(porous model) 45
4.1.4 Preferential Sorption --Capillary
Flow Model (porous model) 45
4.1.5 Phenomenological Transport
Relationship (Irreversible
thermodynamics) 46
4.2 Membrane Materials 46
4.2.1 Cellulose Acetate
Membranes----Asymmetric
membranes 47
4.2.2 Polyamide and Composite
Membranes 51
4.2.2.1 Linear Aromatic Polyamide
Membranes 51
4.2.2.2 Composite Polyamide Membranes 52
4.2.3 Improvements to Polyamide,
Composite Membranes 56
4.2.4 Other Membrane Materials 58
4.3 Membrane Modules 58
4.3.1 Plate and Frame Modules 59
4.3.2 Tubular Modules 60
4.3.3 Spiral Wound Modules 61
4.3.4 Hollow Fine Fiber Membrane
Modules 72
4.3.5 Other Module Confi gurations 74
4.4 Commercially-Available Membranes 76
4.4.1 Seawater Membranes 76
4.4.2 Brackish Water Membranes 78
4.4.2.1 Low-Energy Membranes 79
4.4.2.2 High-Rejection Membranes 79
4.4.2.3 Low-Fouling Membranes 79
Contents ix
4.4.2.4 Low-Differential-Pressure
Membrane Modules 80
4.4.2.5 High-Productivity Membrane
Modules 81
4.4.2.6 Other Membrane/Module
Types 81
References 83
5 Basic Flow Patterns 85
5.1 Arrays 85
5.2 Recycle 89
5.3 Double Pass 90
5.4 Multiple Trains 93
6 Reverse Osmosis Skids 95
6.1 Cartridge Filters 97
6.2 Reverse Osmosis Feed Pumps 100
6.3 Pressure Vessels 106
6.4 Manifolding----Materials of Construction 114
6.5 Instrumentation 114
6.6 Controls 116
6.7 Data Acquisition and Management 118
6.8 Reverse Osmosis Skid 120
6.9 Auxiliary Equipment 120
6.10 Other Design Considerations 121
6.10.1 Access to Profi le and Probe
RO Membranes 121
6.10.2 Interstage Performance Monitoring
Instrumentation 121
6.10.3 Stage-by-Stage Membrane Cleaning 122
References 122
PART 2 PRETREATMENT
7 Water Quality Guidelines 125
7.1 Suspended Solids 125
7.2 Microbes 127
7.3 Organics 128
7.4 Color 129
x Contents
7.5 Metals 130
7.6 Hydrogen Sulfi de 131
7.7 Silica 132
7.8 Calcium Carbonate 134
7.9 Trace Metals----Barium and Strontium 136
7.10 Chlorine 136
7.11 Calcium 137
7.12 Exposure to Other Chemicals 139
References 139
8 Techniques and Technologies 141
8.1 Mechanical Pretreatment 142
8.1.1 Clarifi ers 142
8.1.1.1 Solids-Contact Clarifi ers 144
8.1.1.2 Inclined-Plate Clarifi ers 145
8.1.1.3 Sedimentation Clarifi ers 148
8.1.1.4 Chemical Treatment for Clarifi ers 149
8.1.2 Multimedia Pressure Filters 151
8.1.3 High-Effi ciency Filters 153
8.1.4 Carbon Filters 157
8.1.5 Iron Filters 160
8.1.5.1 Manganese Greensand Filters 161
8.1.5.2 BIRM ‚® Filters 162
8.1.5.3 Filox Filters 163
8.1.5.4 Other Iron Removal Media 163
8.1.6 Sodium Softeners 164
8.1.7 Spent Resin Filters 167
8.1.8 Ultraviolet Irradiation 168
8.1.9 Membrane 169
8.2 Chemical Pretreatment 170
8.2.1 Chemical Oxidizers for Disinfection of
Reverse Osmosis Systems 171
8.2.1.1 Chlorine 171
8.2.1.2 Ozone 176
8.2.1.3 Hydrogen Peroxide 177
8.2.2 Antiscalants 177
8.2.3 Sodium Metabisulfi te 180
8.2.4 Non-Oxidizing Biocides 182
8.2.4.1 Sodium Bisulfi te 182
Contents xi
8.2.4.2 DBNPA 182
8.2.4.3 Other Non-Oxidizing Biocides 183
8.3 Combination Mechanical Plus Chemical
Pretreatment----Lime Softening 183
8.3.1 Cold Lime Softening 184
8.3.2 Warm Lime Softening 185
8.3.3 Hot Process Softening 185
8.4 Sequencing of Pretreatment Technologies 187
References 189
PART 3 SYSTEM DESIGN
9 Design Considerations 193
9.1 Feed Water Quality 193
9.1.1 Feed Water Source 193
9.1.2 Total Dissolved Solids 196
9.1.3 Calcium and Natural Organic Matter 197
9.1.4 Chemical Damage 198
9.2 Temperature 198
9.3 Pressure 200
9.4 Feed Water Flow 201
9.5 Concentrate Flow 202
9.6 Beta 202
9.7 Recovery 205
9.8 pH 207
9.9 Flux 209
References 209
10 RO Design and Design Software 211
10.1 ROSA Version 6.1 214
10.2 TorayDS Version 1.1.44 221
10.3 Hydranautics IMS Design Version 2008 224
10.4 Koch Membranes ROPRO Version 7.0 230
Reference 234
PART 4 OPERATIONS
11 On-Line Operations 237
11.1 Reverse Osmosis Performance Monitoring 237
11.2 Data Collection 237
11.3 Data Analysis and Normalization 239
xii Contents
11.3.1 Data Normalization 239
11.3.1.1 Normalized Product Flow 240
11.3.1.2 Normalized Salt Passage 243
11.3.1.3 Normalized Pressure Drop 245
11.3.2 Normalization Software 247
11.4 Preventive Maintenance 250
References 253
12 Performance Degradation 255
12.1 Normalized Permeate Flow 255
12.1.1 Loss of Normalized Permeate Flow 255
12.1.1.1 Membrane Fouling 255
12.1.1.2 Membrane Scaling 256
12.1.1.3 Membrane Compaction 256
12.1.2 Increase in Normalized Permeate Flow 256
12.1.2.1 Membrane Degradation 256
12.1.2.2 Hardware Issues 257
12.2 Normalized Salt Rejection 258
12.2.1 Loss of Salt Rejection 258
12.2.1.1 Membrane Scaling 258
12.2.1.2 Membrane degradation 259
12.2.1.3 Hardware Issues 259
12.2.2 Increase in Salt Rejection 259
12.3 Pressure Drop 259
12.3.1 Loss in Pressure Drop 260
12.3.2 Increase in Pressure Drop 260
References 261
13 Off-Line Operations 263
13.1 System Flush 263
13.1.1 Off-Line Flush 263
13.1.2 Return to Service Flush 264
13.1.3 Stand-by Flush 265
13.2 Membrane Cleaning 266
13.2.1 When to Clean 266
13.2.2 How to Clean 267
13.2.3 Cleaning Chemicals 270
13.2.3.1 High-pH cleaners 271
Contents xiii
13.2.3.2 Neutral-pH Cleaners 272
13.2.3.3 Low-pH Cleaners 273
13.2.3.4 Cleaners for Specifi c Foulants
and Scale 274
13.2.4 Cleaning Equipment 274
13.2.4.1 Cleaning Tank 275
13.2.4.2 Cleaning Recirculation Pump 277
13.2.4.3 Cartridge Filter 277
13.3 Membrane Lay-Up 277
13.3.1 Short-Term Lay-Up 277
13.3.2 Long-Term Lay-up 278
References 278
PART 5 TROUBLESHOOTING
14 Troubleshooting 283
14.1 Mechanical Evaluation 284
14.2 General Performance Issues 285
14.3 System Design and Performance Projections 285
14.3.1 System Design 285
14.3.2 Performance Projections 286
14.4 Data Assessment 287
14.5 Water Sampling 290
14.6 Membrane Integrity Testing 291
14.7 Profi ling and Probing 291
14.8 Membrane Autopsy 294
14.8.1 Visual Inspection 295
14.8.2 Pressure Dye Test----Rhodamine B 301
14.8.3 Methylene Blue Test 301
14.8.4 Fujiwara Test 301
14.8.5 Spectroscopy 302
14.8.6 Other Tests 303
References 304
PART 6 SYSTEM ENGINEERING
15 Issues Concerning System Engineering 307
15.1 Sodium Water Softening 307
15.1.1 Sequencing of the Sodium Softeners and RO 307
15.1.2 Sodium Softening and Antiscalants 309
Case 1: High Hardness Well Water 310
xiv Contents
Sodium Softener 311
Antiscalant 311
Summary 312
Case 2: Low Hardness Surface Water 313
Sodium Softener 313
Antiscalant 313
Summary 314
Case 3: Well Water with Iron and Manganese 314
Sodium Softener 314
Antiscalant 314
15.2 Reverse Osmosis Sizing and Capacity 316
15.3 Membrane Cleaning: On-Site versus Off-Site 317
15.3.1 Off-Site Membrane Cleaning 317
15.3.2 On-Site Membrane Cleaning 318
15.4 Reverse Osmosis Reject Disposal Options 319
15.4.1 Discharge to Drain or Sewer 320
15.4.2 Discharge to Cooling Tower 320
15.4.3 Zero Liquid Discharge 321
References 323
16 Impact of Other Membrane Technologies 325
16.1 Microfi ltration and Ultrafi ltrati
Back to Top
Contents
Preface xvii
PART 1 FUNDAMENTALS
1 Introduction and History of Development 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 Uses of Reverse Osmosis 3
1.1.2 History of Reverse Osmosis Development 5
1.1.3 Recent Advances in RO Membrane Technology 9
1.1.4 Future Advancements 12
References 12
2 Reverse Osmosis Principles 15
2.1 Osmosis 15
2.2 Reverse Osmosis 16
2.3 Dead-End Filtration 17
2.4 Cross-Flow Filtration 18
3 Basic Terms and Defi nitions 21
3.1 Reverse Osmosis System Flow Rating 21
3.2 Recovery 21
3.3 Rejection 23
3.4 Flux 26
3.5 Concentration Polarization 27
3.6 Beta 29
3.7 Fouling 30
3.8 Scaling 33
3.9 Silt Density Index 35
3.10 Langelier Saturation Index 38
References 39
vii
viii Contents
4 Membranes
4.1 Transport Models 41
4.1.1 Solution-Diffusion Model
(non-porous model) 42
4.1.2 Solution --Diffusion Imperfection
Model (porous model) 44
4.1.3 Finely-Porous Model
(porous model) 45
4.1.4 Preferential Sorption --Capillary
Flow Model (porous model) 45
4.1.5 Phenomenological Transport
Relationship (Irreversible
thermodynamics) 46
4.2 Membrane Materials 46
4.2.1 Cellulose Acetate
Membranes----Asymmetric
membranes 47
4.2.2 Polyamide and Composite
Membranes 51
4.2.2.1 Linear Aromatic Polyamide
Membranes 51
4.2.2.2 Composite Polyamide Membranes 52
4.2.3 Improvements to Polyamide,
Composite Membranes 56
4.2.4 Other Membrane Materials 58
4.3 Membrane Modules 58
4.3.1 Plate and Frame Modules 59
4.3.2 Tubular Modules 60
4.3.3 Spiral Wound Modules 61
4.3.4 Hollow Fine Fiber Membrane
Modules 72
4.3.5 Other Module Confi gurations 74
4.4 Commercially-Available Membranes 76
4.4.1 Seawater Membranes 76
4.4.2 Brackish Water Membranes 78
4.4.2.1 Low-Energy Membranes 79
4.4.2.2 High-Rejection Membranes 79
4.4.2.3 Low-Fouling Membranes 79
Contents ix
4.4.2.4 Low-Differential-Pressure
Membrane Modules 80
4.4.2.5 High-Productivity Membrane
Modules 81
4.4.2.6 Other Membrane/Module
Types 81
References 83
5 Basic Flow Patterns 85
5.1 Arrays 85
5.2 Recycle 89
5.3 Double Pass 90
5.4 Multiple Trains 93
6 Reverse Osmosis Skids 95
6.1 Cartridge Filters 97
6.2 Reverse Osmosis Feed Pumps 100
6.3 Pressure Vessels 106
6.4 Manifolding----Materials of Construction 114
6.5 Instrumentation 114
6.6 Controls 116
6.7 Data Acquisition and Management 118
6.8 Reverse Osmosis Skid 120
6.9 Auxiliary Equipment 120
6.10 Other Design Considerations 121
6.10.1 Access to Profi le and Probe
RO Membranes 121
6.10.2 Interstage Performance Monitoring
Instrumentation 121
6.10.3 Stage-by-Stage Membrane Cleaning 122
References 122
PART 2 PRETREATMENT
7 Water Quality Guidelines 125
7.1 Suspended Solids 125
7.2 Microbes 127
7.3 Organics 128
7.4 Color 129
x Contents
7.5 Metals 130
7.6 Hydrogen Sulfi de 131
7.7 Silica 132
7.8 Calcium Carbonate 134
7.9 Trace Metals----Barium and Strontium 136
7.10 Chlorine 136
7.11 Calcium 137
7.12 Exposure to Other Chemicals 139
References 139
8 Techniques and Technologies 141
8.1 Mechanical Pretreatment 142
8.1.1 Clarifi ers 142
8.1.1.1 Solids-Contact Clarifi ers 144
8.1.1.2 Inclined-Plate Clarifi ers 145
8.1.1.3 Sedimentation Clarifi ers 148
8.1.1.4 Chemical Treatment for Clarifi ers 149
8.1.2 Multimedia Pressure Filters 151
8.1.3 High-Effi ciency Filters 153
8.1.4 Carbon Filters 157
8.1.5 Iron Filters 160
8.1.5.1 Manganese Greensand Filters 161
8.1.5.2 BIRM ‚® Filters 162
8.1.5.3 Filox Filters 163
8.1.5.4 Other Iron Removal Media 163
8.1.6 Sodium Softeners 164
8.1.7 Spent Resin Filters 167
8.1.8 Ultraviolet Irradiation 168
8.1.9 Membrane 169
8.2 Chemical Pretreatment 170
8.2.1 Chemical Oxidizers for Disinfection of
Reverse Osmosis Systems 171
8.2.1.1 Chlorine 171
8.2.1.2 Ozone 176
8.2.1.3 Hydrogen Peroxide 177
8.2.2 Antiscalants 177
8.2.3 Sodium Metabisulfi te 180
8.2.4 Non-Oxidizing Biocides 182
8.2.4.1 Sodium Bisulfi te 182
Contents xi
8.2.4.2 DBNPA 182
8.2.4.3 Other Non-Oxidizing Biocides 183
8.3 Combination Mechanical Plus Chemical
Pretreatment----Lime Softening 183
8.3.1 Cold Lime Softening 184
8.3.2 Warm Lime Softening 185
8.3.3 Hot Process Softening 185
8.4 Sequencing of Pretreatment Technologies 187
References 189
PART 3 SYSTEM DESIGN
9 Design Considerations 193
9.1 Feed Water Quality 193
9.1.1 Feed Water Source 193
9.1.2 Total Dissolved Solids 196
9.1.3 Calcium and Natural Organic Matter 197
9.1.4 Chemical Damage 198
9.2 Temperature 198
9.3 Pressure 200
9.4 Feed Water Flow 201
9.5 Concentrate Flow 202
9.6 Beta 202
9.7 Recovery 205
9.8 pH 207
9.9 Flux 209
References 209
10 RO Design and Design Software 211
10.1 ROSA Version 6.1 214
10.2 TorayDS Version 1.1.44 221
10.3 Hydranautics IMS Design Version 2008 224
10.4 Koch Membranes ROPRO Version 7.0 230
Reference 234
PART 4 OPERATIONS
11 On-Line Operations 237
11.1 Reverse Osmosis Performance Monitoring 237
11.2 Data Collection 237
11.3 Data Analysis and Normalization 239
xii Contents
11.3.1 Data Normalization 239
11.3.1.1 Normalized Product Flow 240
11.3.1.2 Normalized Salt Passage 243
11.3.1.3 Normalized Pressure Drop 245
11.3.2 Normalization Software 247
11.4 Preventive Maintenance 250
References 253
12 Performance Degradation 255
12.1 Normalized Permeate Flow 255
12.1.1 Loss of Normalized Permeate Flow 255
12.1.1.1 Membrane Fouling 255
12.1.1.2 Membrane Scaling 256
12.1.1.3 Membrane Compaction 256
12.1.2 Increase in Normalized Permeate Flow 256
12.1.2.1 Membrane Degradation 256
12.1.2.2 Hardware Issues 257
12.2 Normalized Salt Rejection 258
12.2.1 Loss of Salt Rejection 258
12.2.1.1 Membrane Scaling 258
12.2.1.2 Membrane degradation 259
12.2.1.3 Hardware Issues 259
12.2.2 Increase in Salt Rejection 259
12.3 Pressure Drop 259
12.3.1 Loss in Pressure Drop 260
12.3.2 Increase in Pressure Drop 260
References 261
13 Off-Line Operations 263
13.1 System Flush 263
13.1.1 Off-Line Flush 263
13.1.2 Return to Service Flush 264
13.1.3 Stand-by Flush 265
13.2 Membrane Cleaning 266
13.2.1 When to Clean 266
13.2.2 How to Clean 267
13.2.3 Cleaning Chemicals 270
13.2.3.1 High-pH cleaners 271
Contents xiii
13.2.3.2 Neutral-pH Cleaners 272
13.2.3.3 Low-pH Cleaners 273
13.2.3.4 Cleaners for Specifi c Foulants
and Scale 274
13.2.4 Cleaning Equipment 274
13.2.4.1 Cleaning Tank 275
13.2.4.2 Cleaning Recirculation Pump 277
13.2.4.3 Cartridge Filter 277
13.3 Membrane Lay-Up 277
13.3.1 Short-Term Lay-Up 277
13.3.2 Long-Term Lay-up 278
References 278
PART 5 TROUBLESHOOTING
14 Troubleshooting 283
14.1 Mechanical Evaluation 284
14.2 General Performance Issues 285
14.3 System Design and Performance Projections 285
14.3.1 System Design 285
14.3.2 Performance Projections 286
14.4 Data Assessment 287
14.5 Water Sampling 290
14.6 Membrane Integrity Testing 291
14.7 Profi ling and Probing 291
14.8 Membrane Autopsy 294
14.8.1 Visual Inspection 295
14.8.2 Pressure Dye Test----Rhodamine B 301
14.8.3 Methylene Blue Test 301
14.8.4 Fujiwara Test 301
14.8.5 Spectroscopy 302
14.8.6 Other Tests 303
References 304
PART 6 SYSTEM ENGINEERING
15 Issues Concerning System Engineering 307
15.1 Sodium Water Softening 307
15.1.1 Sequencing of the Sodium Softeners and RO 307
15.1.2 Sodium Softening and Antiscalants 309
Case 1: High Hardness Well Water 310
xiv Contents
Sodium Softener 311
Antiscalant 311
Summary 312
Case 2: Low Hardness Surface Water 313
Sodium Softener 313
Antiscalant 313
Summary 314
Case 3: Well Water with Iron and Manganese 314
Sodium Softener 314
Antiscalant 314
15.2 Reverse Osmosis Sizing and Capacity 316
15.3 Membrane Cleaning: On-Site versus Off-Site 317
15.3.1 Off-Site Membrane Cleaning 317
15.3.2 On-Site Membrane Cleaning 318
15.4 Reverse Osmosis Reject Disposal Options 319
15.4.1 Discharge to Drain or Sewer 320
15.4.2 Discharge to Cooling Tower 320
15.4.3 Zero Liquid Discharge 321
References 323
16 Impact of Other Membrane Technologies 325
16.1 Microfi ltration and Ultrafi ltrati
Back to Top
BISAC SUBJECT HEADINGS
TEC009060: Industrial Engineering
TEC009010: Chemical and Biochemical
TEC010030: Environmental; water supply
BIC CODES
TDC: Industrial Chemistry
TDCB: Chemical Engineering
TQ: Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
Back to Top