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Medical Imaging

Edited by H. S. Sanjay, and M. Niranjanamurthy
Series: Advances in Data Engineering and Machine Learning
Copyright: 2023   |   Status: Published
ISBN: 9781119785392  |  Hardcover  |  
237 pages
Price: $195 USD
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One Line Description
Written and edited by a team of experts in the field, this is the most comprehensive and up-to-date study of and reference for the practical applications of medical imaging for engineers, scientists, students, and medical professionals.


Audience
Paramedical courses, service engineers, application engineers, R&D professionals, biomedical engineers, technicians, hospital support staff, faculty, and students in medical electronics, biomedical engineering and instrumentation engineering

Description
Medical imaging is one of the most important diagnostic tools in healthcare. More than 50% of the clinical market depends on diagnostic imaging to identify different pathological conditions in subjects. It is, therefore, essential for healthcare personnel and paramedical staff as well as the technicians and the supporting engineers to understand the basics of medical imaging. This subject is of utmost importance to every individual involved in the healthcare industry, right from research and development until application and service.

Medical Imaging presents the salient aspects of diagnostic imaging modalities. The subjects that are covered are the basic functional principles, the concepts involved, the instrumentation-based aspects, applications, and the latest trends in imaging modalities. This book concentrates on X-rays imaging, computer tomography-based imaging, ultrasound techniques, radionuclide imaging, MRI techniques, and other important diagnostic modalities which are commonly used for medical diagnosis of various pathologies in human beings.

Covering all of the latest advances, innovations, and developments in practical applications for medical imaging, this volume represents the most comprehensive, up-to-date coverage of the issues of the day and state of the art. Whether for the veteran engineer or scientist or a student, this volume is a must-have for any library.


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Author / Editor Details
H. S. Sanjay, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Medical Electronics, M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology. He earned his PhD in electronics engineering from Jain University and a post graduate degree in biomedical engineering from Manipal University. He has over 10 years of academic experience and has been teaching undergraduate students since 2009. He has contributed to five books and authored over 15 articles in scholarly journals, including being a reviewer for five journals.

M. Niranjanamurthy, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning, BMS Institute of Technology and Management (affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum, India), Bangalore, Karnataka. He earned his PhD in computer science at JJTU. He has over 10 years of teaching experience and two years of industry experience as a software engineer. He has published four books and 56 papers in technical journals and conferences. He has two patents to his credit and has won numerous awards.

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Table of Contents
Aknowledgements xv
1 Introduction to Medical Imaging 1
1.1 Medical Imaging – An Insight 1
1.2 Types of Diagnostic Imaging Modalities 2
1.2.1 Radiography 2
1.2.2 Tomography 4
1.2.3 Ultrasound 6
1.2.4 Nuclear Medicine 9
1.2.5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 14
1.2.6 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 16
1.2.7 Functional Near Infrared Imaging 18
1.2.8 Elastography 19
1.2.9 Photoacoustic Imaging 20
1.2.10 Magnetic Particle Imaging 22
1.3 3D Rendering 23
1.4 Diagnostic Images 23
1.5 Medical Imaging in Pharmaceutical Applications 23
Glossary-Appendix 26
2 Fundamentals of X-Rays 27
2.1 Electromagnetic Radiations 27
2.2 Wave Nature 28
2.2.1 Particle Nature 30
2.2.2 Intensity of an X-Ray Beam 30
2.2.3 Roentgen (R) 31
2.2.4 Radiation Absorbed Dose (rad) 31
2.2.5 X-Ray Interactions 31
2.2.6 Interaction Between X-Ray and Matter 31
2.2.7 Coherent Scattering 32
2.2.8 Compton Effect 32
2.3 Photoelectric Effect 34
2.3.1 Pair Production 35
2.3.2 Photodisintegration 36
2.4 Interaction Between X-Ray and Tissues 36
2.5 Factors Affecting Attenuation Coefficients 38
2.6 Attenuation Due to Coherent Scattering (βcoh) 39
2.7 Attenuation Due to Compton Scattering (βcom)
and Photoelectric Effect (βpho) 39
2.8 Generation and Detection of X-Rays 41
2.8.1 Generation of X-Rays 41
2.8.2 White Radiation 41
2.8.3 Characteristic Radiation 42
2.9 X-Ray Generators 42
2.9.1 Line Focus Principle 43
2.9.2 X-Ray Tube Ratings 45
2.9.3 Target Material 46
2.9.4 Tube Voltage 46
2.9.5 Tube Current 46
2.9.6 Filament Current 46
2.10 Filters 47
2.10.1 Beam Restrictors 47
2.10.2 Aperture Diaphragms 48
2.10.3 Cones and Cylinders 49
2.10.4 Collimators 49
2.10.5 Grids 50
2.11 X-Ray Visualization 51
2.11.1 Intensifying Screens 51
2.11.2 Image Intensifiers 53
2.12 Detection of X-Rays 54
2.12.1 X-Ray Film 55
2.12.2 Optical Density 55
2.12.3 Characteristic Curve 56
2.12.4 Film Gamma 57
2.12.5 Speed 57
2.12.6 Film Latitude 59
2.12.7 Double-Emulsion Film 60
2.13 Radiation Detectors 60
2.13.1 Scintillation Detector 60
2.13.2 Ionization Chamber 61
2.14 X-Ray Diagnostic Approaches 62
2.14.1 Conventional X-Ray Radiography 62
2.14.2 Penumbra 63
2.14.3 Field Size 64
2.14.4 Film Magnification 65
2.15 Fluoroscopy 66
2.16 Angiography 67
2.17 Mammography 68
2.18 Xeroradiography 68
2.19 Image Subtraction 69
2.19.1 Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) 70
2.19.2 Dual Energy Subtraction 71
2.19.3 K-Edge Subtraction 72
2.20 Conventional Tomography 73
2.20.1 X-Ray Image Attributes 74
2.20.2 Spatial Resolution 74
2.21 Point Spread Function (PSF) 75
2.21.1 Line Spread Function (LSF) 75
2.21.2 Edge Spread Function (ESF) 76
2.21.3 System Transfer Function (STF) 76
2.22 Image Noise 77
2.23 Image Contrast 78
2.24 Receiver Operating Curve (ROC) 79
2.25 Biological Effects of X Ray Radiations 79
2.25.1 Determinants of Biological Effects 79
Glossary-Appendix 82
3 X-Ray Computed Tomography 85
3.1 Introduction to X-Ray Computed Tomography 85
3.2 CT Number 87
3.3 X-Ray Detectors in CT Machines 88
3.3.1 Energy Integrating Detectors 88
3.3.2 Photon Counting Detectors 88
3.4 CT Imaging 89
3.4.1 Radon Transform 89
3.4.2 Sampling 92
3.4.3 2D Image Reconstruction 94
3.4.4 Direct Fourier Transform 97
3.4.5 Filtered Back Projection (FBP)/Convolution Back
Projection (CBP) 98
3.4.6 Fan Beam Projections 101
3.5 Computer Tomography-Based Diagnostics 104
3.5.1 Single Slice Computed Tomography 104
3.5.2 Multislice Computed Tomography 105
3.5.3 Cardiac CT 106
3.5.4 Dual Energy Computer Tomography 106
3.6 Image Quality 107
3.6.1 Resolution 107
3.6.2 Noise 108
3.6.3 Contrast 108
3.6.4 Image Artifacts 108
3.7 CT Machine – The Hardware Aspects 110
3.8 Generations of CT Machines 112
3.9 Biological Effects and Safety-Based Aspects 118
Glossary-Appendix 118
4 Ultrasound Imaging 121
4. Ultrasound 121
4.1 Basics of Acoustic Waves 121
4.2 Propagation of Waves in Homogeneous Media 122
4.3 Linear Wave Equation 122
4.4 Loudness and Intensity 123
4.5 Interference 124
4.6 Attenuation 125
4.7 Nonlinearity 126
4.8 Propagation of Waves in Non-Homogeneous Media 127
4.9 Reflection and Refraction 127
4.10 Scattering 129
4.11 Doppler Effect in the Propagation of the Acoustic Wave 130
4.12 Generation and Detection of Ultrasound 133
4.13 Ultrasonic Transducer 134
4.14 Mechanical Matching 135
4.15 Electrical Matching 136
4.16 Ultrasound Imaging 136
4.16.1 Gray Scale Imaging 136
4.17 Image Reconstruction 140
4.18 Schlieren System 141
4.19 Doppler Imaging Approaches 141
4.19.1 Continuous Wave Doppler System 142
4.19.2 Pulse Wave Doppler System 142
4.19.3 Color Doppler Flow Imaging 143
4.20 Tissue Characterization 144
4.20.1 Velocity 145
4.20.2 Absorption 145
4.20.3 Scattering 145
4.21 Ultrasound Image Characteristics 146
4.21.1 Spatial Resolution 146
4.21.2 Image Contrast 146
4.21.3 Ultrasonic Texture 146
4.22 Biological Effects of Ultrasound 147
4.22.1 Acoustic Aspects at High Intensity Levels 147
4.22.2 Cavitation 147
4.22.3 Transient Cavitation 147
4.22.4 Stable Cavitation 147
4.22.5 Wave Distortion 147
4.22.6 Bioeffects (Thermal and Non-Thermal Effects) 147
Glossary-Appendix 148
5 Radionuclide Imaging 151
5.1 Radionuclide Imaging – A Brief History 151
5.2 An Insight Into Radioactivity 152
5.2.1 Nuclear Particles 152
5.2.2 Radioactive Decay 153
5.2.3 Specific Activity 154
5.2.4 Interactions Between Nuclear Particles and Matter 155
5.2.4.1 Alpha Particles 155
5.2.4.2 Beta Particles 156
5.2.4.3 Gamma Particles 156
5.2.5 Properties of Radionuclides 157
5.2.5.1 Physical Properties 157
5.2.5.2 Biological Properties 158
5.3 Generation of Nuclear Emission 159
5.3.1 Nuclear Sources 159
5.3.2 99mTc Radionuclide Generator 159
5.3.3 Detection of Nuclear Emissions 160
5.3.3.1 Ion Collection Detectors 161
5.3.3.2 Scintillation Fetectors 162
5.3.3.3 Solid State Detectors 164
5.3.3.4 Collimator 164
5.4 Radionuclide Detection 166
5.4.1 Rectilinear Scanning Machines 166
5.4.2 Scintillation Camera (Gamma Camera) 167
5.4.2.1 Collimator 167
5.4.2.2 Scintillation Crystal 168
5.4.2.3 Photomultiplier Tube 168
5.4.3 Longitudinal Section Tomography (LST) 170
5.4.4 Single Photon Emission Computer Tomography
(SPECT) 171
5.4.5 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 173
5.5 Diagnostic Approaches Using Radiation Detector Probes 174
5.5.1 Thyroid Function Assessment 175
5.5.2 Renal Function Test 175
5.5.3 Blood Volume Assessment 175
5.6 Radionuclide Image Characteristics 175
5.6.1 Spatial Resolution 175
5.6.2 Image Contrast 176
5.6.3 Image Noise 176
5.7 Biological Effects of Radionuclides 176
Glossary-Appendix 177
6 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 179
6.1 Basics of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 179
6.2 Larmor Frequency 182
6.3 Relaxation 185
6.3.1 T1 (Longitudinal Relaxation) 185
6.3.2 T2 (Transverse Relaxation) 186
6.4 Image Contrast 188
6.5 Repetition Time (TR) and T1 Weighting 188
6.6 Echo Time (TE) and T2 Weighting 189
6.7 Saturation at Short Repetition Times 191
6.8 Flip Angle/Tip Angle 192
6.9 Presaturation 192
6.10 Magnetization Transfer 192
6.11 Slice Selection 193
6.12 Spatial Encoding 196
6.13 Phase Encoding 196
6.14 Frequency Encoding 197
6.15 K-Space 198
6.16 Image Noise 199
6.17 The MR Scanning Machine 201
6.17.1 The Magnet 202
6.17.2 Permanent Magnet 202
6.17.3 Resistive Magnets 202
6.17.4 Superconducting Magnets 202
6.17.5 Quenching 202
6.17.6 Shimming 203
6.17.7 Shielding 203
6.17.8 The Gradient System 203
6.17.9 The Radiofrequency System 204
6.17.10 The Computer System 204
6.18 Pulse Sequences 204
6.18.1 Spin Echo Sequence 205
6.18.1.1 Black Blood Effect 206
6.18.2 Inversion Recovery Sequence 206
6.18.3 Short TI Inversion Recovery (STIR) Sequences 207
6.18.4 Fluid Attenuated Recovery (FLAIR) Sequences 207
6.18.5 Gradient Echo Sequence 207
6.19 Parallel Imaging 209
6.20 MR Artifacts 210
6.21 Motion Artifacts 211
6.22 Flow Artifacts 211
6.23 Phase Wrapping 211
6.24 Chemical Shift 212
6.25 Magnetic Susceptibility 213
6.26 Truncation Artifact 213
6.27 Magic Angle 213
6.28 Eddy Currents 214
6.29 Partial Volume Artifact 214
6.30 Inhomogeneous Fat Suppression 214
6.31 Zipper Artifacts 214
6.32 Crisscross Artifact 215
6.33 Bioeffects and Safety 215
Glossary-Appendix 215
About the Authors 219
Index 221

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