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Submit a ProposalQuantum Blockchain
 | An Emerging Cryptographic Paradigm Edited by Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj, Vani Rajasekar, SK Hafizul Islam, Balamurugan Balusamy and Ching-Hsien Hsu Copyright: 2022 | Status: Published ISBN: 9781119836223 | Hardcover | 380 pages | 84 illustrations Price: $225 USD  |
One Line Description
While addressing the security challenges and threats in blockchain, this book is also an introduction to quantum cryptography for engineering researchers and students in the realm of information security.
Audience
The book is for security analysts, data scientists, vulnerability analysts, professionals, academicians, researchers, industrialists, and students working in the fields of (quantum) blockchain, cybersecurity, cryptography, and artificial intelligence with regard to smart cities and Internet of Things.
The book is for security analysts, data scientists, vulnerability analysts, professionals, academicians, researchers, industrialists, and students working in the fields of (quantum) blockchain, cybersecurity, cryptography, and artificial intelligence with regard to smart cities and Internet of Things.
Description
Quantum cryptography is the science of exploiting quantum mechanical properties to perform cryptographic tasks. By utilizing unique quantum features of nature, quantum cryptography methods offer everlasting security.
The applicability of quantum cryptography is explored in this book. It describes the state- of-the-art of quantum blockchain techniques and sketches how they can be implemented in standard communication infrastructure. Highlighting a wide range of topics such as quantum cryptography, quantum blockchain, post-quantum blockchain, and quantum blockchain in Industry 4.0, this book also provides the future research directions of quantum blockchain in terms of quantum resilience, data management, privacy issues, sustainability, scalability, and quantum blockchain interoperability. Above all, it explains the mathematical ideas that underpin the methods of post-quantum cryptography security.
Readers will find in this book a comprehensiveness of the subject including:
• The key principles of quantum computation that solve the factoring issue.
• A discussion of a variety of potential post-quantum public-key encryption and digital
signature techniques.
• Explanations of quantum blockchain in cybersecurity, healthcare, and Industry 4.0.
Back to Top
Quantum cryptography is the science of exploiting quantum mechanical properties to perform cryptographic tasks. By utilizing unique quantum features of nature, quantum cryptography methods offer everlasting security.
The applicability of quantum cryptography is explored in this book. It describes the state- of-the-art of quantum blockchain techniques and sketches how they can be implemented in standard communication infrastructure. Highlighting a wide range of topics such as quantum cryptography, quantum blockchain, post-quantum blockchain, and quantum blockchain in Industry 4.0, this book also provides the future research directions of quantum blockchain in terms of quantum resilience, data management, privacy issues, sustainability, scalability, and quantum blockchain interoperability. Above all, it explains the mathematical ideas that underpin the methods of post-quantum cryptography security.
Readers will find in this book a comprehensiveness of the subject including:
• The key principles of quantum computation that solve the factoring issue.
• A discussion of a variety of potential post-quantum public-key encryption and digital
signature techniques.
• Explanations of quantum blockchain in cybersecurity, healthcare, and Industry 4.0.
Back to Top
Author / Editor Details
Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj, PhD, is a Professor in the School of Computing Science and Engineering at Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India. He has contributed around 25 authored and edited books on various technologies, 17 patents, and more than 40 articles and papers in various refereed journals and international conferences. He is a Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj, PhD, is a Professor in the School of Computing Science and Engineering at Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India. He has contributed around 25 authored and edited books on various technologies, 17 patents, and more than 40 articles and papers in various refereed journals and international conferences. He is a Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Vani Rajasekar is an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at Kongu Engineering College, India, and is pursuing her PhD in information and communication engineering. She has authored and co-authored around 40 international and national journals, books, and book chapters.
SK Hafizul Islam, PhD, is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology Kalyani, West Bengal, India.
Balamurugan Balusamy, PhD, is a professor in the School of Computing Science and Engineering, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India. He is a Pioneer Researcher in the areas of big data and the IoT and has published more than 70 articles in various top international journals.
Ching-Hsien Hsu, PhD, is Chair Professor of the College of Information and Electrical Engineering; Director of Big Data Research Center, Asia University, Taiwan. He is the Chair of the IEEE Technical Committee on Cloud Computing (TCCLD) and Fellow of the IET.
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Table of Contents
Preface
1. Introduction to Classical Cryptography
Vani Rajasekar, Premalatha J., Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj and Oana Geman
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Substitution Ciphers
1.2.1 Caesar Cipher
1.2.2 Polyalphabetic Cipher
1.2.2.1 Working of Polyalphabetic Cipher
1.2.2.2 Cracking of Cipher Text
1.2.3 Hill Cipher
1.2.4 Playfair Cipher
1.2.4.1 Rules for Encrypting the Playfair Cipher
1.3 Transposition Cipher
1.3.1 Columnar Transposition
1.3.2 Rail Fence Transposition
1.3.3 Route Cipher
1.3.4 Double Transposition
1.4 Symmetric Encryption Technique
1.4.1 Key Management
1.4.2 Key Generation
1.4.3 Key Exchange
1.4.4 Data Encryption Standard
1.4.4.1 Structure of DES
1.4.4.2 Fiestel Function
1.4.5 Advanced Encryption Standard
1.4.5.1 Operation in AES
1.4.6 Applications of Symmetric Cipher
1.4.7 Drawback of Symmetric Encryption
1.4.7.1 Key Exhaustion
1.4.7.2 Key Management at Large Scale
1.4.7.3 Attribution Data
1.5 Asymmetric Encryption Technique
1.5.1 Rivest-Shamir-Adleman Encryption Algorithm
1.5.2 Elliptic Curve Cryptography
1.5.2.1 Elliptic Curve
1.5.2.2 Difference Between ECC and RSA
1.5.2.3 Advantages and Security of ECC
1.5.3 Hyperelliptic Curve Cryptography
1.6 Digital Signatures
1.6.1 Working of Digital Signature
1.6.2 Creation of Digital Signature
1.6.3 Message Authentication Code
1.6.3.1 Limitation on MAC
1.6.3.2 One Time MAC
1.6.4 Secure Hash Algorithm
1.6.4.1 Characteristics of SHA
1.6.4.2 Applications of SHA
1.6.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Signature
1.6.5.1 Advantages of Digital Signature
1.6.5.2 Disadvantages of Digital Signature
1.6.6 Conclusion
References
2. Quantum Cryptographic Techniques
Malathy S., Santhiya M., and Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj
2.1 Post-Quantum Cryptography
2.2 Strength of Quantum Cryptography
2.3 Working Principle of Quantum Cryptography
2.4 Example of Quantum Cryptography
2.5 Fundamentals of Quantum Cryptography
2.5.1 Entanglement
2.5.1.1 Entanglement State
2.6 Problems With the One-Time Pad and Key Distribution
2.7 Quantum No-Cloning Property
2.8 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
2.9 Quantum Key Distribution
2.10 Cybersecurity Risks Prevailing in Current Cryptographic Techniques
2.11 Implementation of Quantum-Safe Cryptography
2.12 Practical Usage of Existing QKD Solutions
2.13 Attributes of Quantum Key Distribution
2.13.1 Key Rate
2.13.2 Length of the Link
2.13.3 Key Material Production
2.13.4 Robustness
2.13.5 Usage of the Key
2.14 Quantum Key Distribution Protocols
2.14.1 BB84 Protocol
2.14.2 Decoy State Protocol
2.14.3 T12 Protocol
2.14.4 SARG04 Protocol
2.14.5 Six-State Protocol
2.14.6 E91 Protocol
2.14.7 COW Protocol (Coherent One-Way Protocol)
2.14.8 HDQKD Protocol (High-Dimensional Quantum Key Distribution)
2.14.9 KMB09 Protocol
2.14.10 B92 Protocol
2.14.11 MSZ96 Protocol
2.14.12 DPS Protocol
2.14.13 Three-Stage Quantum Protocol
2.14.14 S09 Protocol
2.15 Applications of Quantum Cryptography
2.15.1 Multipoint Secure Computation
2.15.2 E-Commerce
2.15.3 Cloud Computing
2.16 Conclusion
References
3. Evolution of Quantum Blockchain
Dinesh Komarasamy and Jenita Hermina J.
3.1 Introduction of Blockchain
3.2 Introduction of Quantum Computing
3.2.1 Background and History of Quantum Computers
3.2.2 Scope of Quantum Computers in Blockchain
3.3 Restrictions of Blockchain Quantum
3.3.1 Post-Quantum Cryptography
3.3.1.1 Lattice Cryptography
3.3.2 Multivariate Cryptography
3.3.3 Hash Cryptography
3.3.4 Code Cryptography
3.4 Post-Quantum Cryptography Features
3.5 Quantum Cryptography
3.5.1 Working of QKD
3.5.2 Protocols of QKD
3.5.2.1 Prepare-and-Measure
3.5.2.2 Entanglement
3.6 Comparison Between Traditional and Quantum-Resistant Cryptosystems
3.7 Quantum Blockchain Applications
3.8 Blockchain Applications
3.8.1 Financial Application
3.8.2 Non-Financial Application
3.9 Limitations of Blockchain
3.10 Conclusion
References
4. Development of the Quantum Bitcoin (BTC)
Gaurav Dhuriya, Aradhna Saini and Prashant Johari
4.1 Introduction of BTC
4.2 Extract
4.3 Preservation
4.3.1 The Role of Cryptography in BTC
4.3.2 The Role of Decentralization in BTC
4.3.3 The Role of Immutability in BTC
4.3.4 The Role of Proof-of-Exertion in BTC
4.4 The Growth of BTC
4.5 Quantum Computing (History and Future)
4.6 Quantum Computation
4.7 The Proposal of Quantum Calculation
4.8 What Are Quantum Computers and How They Exertion?
4.9 Post-Quantum Cryptography
4.10 Difficulties Facing BTC
4.11 Conclusion
References
5. A Conceptual Model for Quantum Blockchain
Vijayalakshmi P., Abraham Dinakaran and Korhan Cengiz
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Distributed Ledger Technology
5.2.1 Features of DLT
5.2.2 Quantum Computing
5.2.2.1 Growth of Quantum Computing
5.2.2.2 A Comparison of Classical Computing and Quantum Computing
5.2.3 Blockchain and Quantum Blockchain
5.2.3.1 Characteristics of Blockchain
5.2.3.2 Quantum Blockchain
5.3 Hardware Composition of the Quantum Computer
5.4 Framework Styles of Quantum Blockchain
5.4.1 Computational Elements
5.4.1.1 Qubits
5.4.1.2 Quantum Gates and Quantum Computation
5.4.2 The Architectural Patterns
5.4.2.1 Layered Approach
5.4.2.2 Securing Mechanisms for Quantum Blockchain
5.5 Fundamental Integrants
5.5.1 Interaction of Quantum Systems
5.5.2 Failure of Quantum Systems
5.5.3 Security of Quantum Systems
5.5.4 Challenges and Opportunities
5.6 Conclusion
References
6. Challenges and Research Perspective of Post–Quantum Blockchain Venu K. and Krishnakumar B.
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Cryptocurrency
6.1.2 Blockchain
6.1.2.1 Bitcoin and Cryptocurrencies
6.1.2.2 Insolent Bonds
6.1.2.3 Imminent Stage
6.1.3 Physiology of Blockchain
6.1.4 Blockchain Network
6.1.5 Blockchain Securities
6.1.5.1 Public Key Cryptography an Asymmetric Cryptosystem
6.1.5.2 Digital Signature’s Hashing Algorithm
6.1.6 Bitcoin Blockchain
6.1.7 Quantum Cryptography
6.1.8 Quantum Blockchain
6.1.9 Post–Quantum Cryptography
6.2 Post–Quantum Blockchain Cryptosystems
6.2.1 Post–Quantum Blockchain Cryptosystems Based on Public Keys
6.2.1.1 Code–Based Cryptosystem
6.2.1.2 Multivariant–Based Cryptosystem
6.2.1.3 Lattice–Based Cryptosystem
6.2.1.4 Super Singular Elliptic–Curve Isogeny Cryptosystem
6.2.1.5 Hybrid–Based Cryptosystem
6.2.2 Post–Quantum Blockchain Signatures
6.2.2.1 Code–Centred Digital Signature
6.2.2.2 Multivariant–Based Digital Signature
6.2.2.3 Lattice–Based Digital Signature
6.2.2.4 Super Singular Elliptic–Curve Isogeny Digital Signature
6.2.2.5 Hash–Based Digital Signature
6.3 Post–Quantum Blockchain Performance Comparison
6.3.1 Encryption Algorithm
6.3.2 Digital Signatures
6.4 Future Scopes of Post–Quantum Blockchain
6.4.1 NIST Standardization
6.4.2 Key and Signature Size
6.4.3 Faster Evolution
6.4.4 Post–Quantum Blockchain From Pre–Quantum
6.4.5 Generation of Keys
6.4.6 Computational Efficiency
6.4.7 Choosing Hardware
6.4.8 Overheads on Large Ciphertext
6.5 Conclusion
References
7. Post-Quantum Cryptosystems for Blockchain
K. Tamil Selvi and R. Thamilselvan
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Basics of Blockchain
7.3 Quantum and Post-Quantum Cryptography
7.4 Post-Quantum Cryptosystems for Blockchain
7.4.1 Public Key Post-Quantum Cryptosystems
7.4.1.1 Code-Based Cryptosystems
7.4.1.2 Lattice-Based Cryptosystems
7.4.1.3 Multivariate-Based Cryptosystem
7.4.1.4 Supersingular Elliptic Curve Isogency-Based Cryptosystems
7.4.1.5 Hybrid Cryptosystems
7.4.2 Post-Quantum Signing Algorithms
7.4.2.1 Code-Based Cryptosystems
7.4.2.2 Lattice-Based Cryptosystems
7.4.2.3 Multivariate Based Cryptosystem
7.4.2.4 Supersingular Elliptic Curve Isogency-Based Cryptosystem
7.4.2.5 Hash-Based Cryptosystem
7.5 Other Cryptosystems for Post-Quantum Blockchain
7.6 Conclusion
References
8. Post-Quantum Confidential Transaction Protocols
R. Manjula Devi, P. Keerthika, P. Suresh, R. Venkatesan, M. Sangeetha, C. Sagana
and K. Devendran
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Confidential Transactions
8.2.1 Confidential Transaction Protocol
8.3 Zero-Knowledge Protocol
8.3.1 Properties
8.3.2 Types
8.3.2.1 Interactive Zero-Knowledge Proof
8.3.2.2 Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Proof (NIZKP)
8.3.3 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Graph Isomorphism
8.3.4 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Graph Non-Isomorphism
8.3.5 Zero-Knowledge Proof for NP-Complete Problems
8.3.5.1 Three-Coloring Problem
8.3.6 Zero-Knowledge Proofs for Specific Lattice Problems
8.3.7 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Blockchain
8.3.7.1 Messaging
8.3.7.2 Authentication
8.3.7.3 Storage Protection
8.3.7.4 Sending Private Blockchain Transactions
8.3.7.5 Complex Documentation
8.3.7.6 File System Control
8.3.7.7 Security for Sensitive Information
8.3.8 Zero-Knowledge Proof for High Level Compilers
8.4 Zero-Knowledge Protocols
8.4.1 Schnorr Protocol
8.4.2 Σ-Protocols
8.4.2.1 Three-Move Structure
8.5 Transformation Methods
8.5.1 CRS Model
8.5.2 Fiat-Shamir Heuristic
8.5.3 Unruh Transformation
8.6 Conclusion
References
9. A Study on Post-Quantum Blockchain: The Next Innovation for Smarter and Safer Cities
G.K. Kamalam and R.S. Shudapreyaa
9.1 Blockchain: The Next Big Thing in Smart City Technology
9.1.1 What is Blockchain, and How Does It Work?
9.1.1.1 The Blockchain Advantage
9.1.1.2 What is the Mechanism Behind Blockchain?
9.1.2 The Requirements for a Blockchain System
9.1.3 Using the Blockchain to Improve Smart City Efforts
9.2 Application of Blockchain Technology in Smart Cities
9.2.1 Big Data
9.2.1.1 Role of Big Data
9.2.1.2 Problems of Big Data
9.2.2 Energy Internet
9.2.2.1 Role of Energy Internet
9.2.2.2 Problems of Energy Internet
9.2.3 Internet of Things
9.2.3.1 Role of IoT
9.2.3.2 Problems of IoT
9.3 Using Blockchain to Secure Smart Cities
9.3.1 Blockchain Technology
9.3.2 Framework for Security
9.3.2.1 Physical Layer
9.3.2.2 Communication Layer
9.3.2.3 Database Layer
9.3.2.4 Interface Layer
9.4 Blockchain Public Key Security
9.4.1 Hash Function Security
9.4.2 Characteristics and Post-Quantum Schemes of Blockchain
9.5 Quantum Threats on Blockchain Enabled Smart City
9.5.1 Shor’s Algorithm
9.5.1.1 Modular Exponentiation
9.5.1.2 Factoring
9.5.2 Grover’s Algorithm
9.6 Post-Quantum Blockchain–Based Smart City Solutions
9.6.1 Lattice-Based Cryptography
9.6.2 Quantum Distributed Key
9.6.3 Quantum Entanglement in Time
9.7 Quantum Computing Fast Evolution
9.7.1 Transition—Pre-Quantum Blockchain to Post-Quantum Blockchain
9.7.2 Large Scale and Signature Size
9.7.3 Slow Key Generation
9.7.4 Computational and Energy Efficiency
9.7.5 Bockchain Hardware Unusability
9.7.6 Overheads Due to Large Ciphertext
9.7.7 Quantum Blockchain
9.8 Conclusion
References
10. Quantum Protocols for Hash-Based Blockchain
Sathya K., Premalatha J., Balamurugan Balusamy and Sarumathi Murali
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Consensus Protocols
10.2.1 Proof of Work (PoW)
10.2.2 Proof of Stake (PoS)
10.2.3 Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS)
10.2.4 Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT)
10.2.5 Proof of Capacity
10.2.6 Proof of Elapsed Time
10.3 Quantum Blockchain
10.3.1 Quantum Protocols in Blockchain
10.3.1.1 Quantum Bit Commitment Protocols
10.3.1.2 Quantum Voting Protocols
10.4 Quantum Honest-Success Byzantine Agreement (QHBA) Protocol
10.5 MatRiCT Protocol
10.5.1 Setting Up the System Parameters
10.5.2 Generation of Public-Private Key Pairs
10.5.3 Generation of Serial Number for the Given Secret Key
10.5.4 Creation of Coins
10.5.5 Spending the Coins in Transaction
10.5.6 Verifying the Transaction
10.6 Conclusion
References
11. Post-Quantum Blockchain–Enabled Services in Scalable Smart Cities Kumar Prateek and Soumyadev Maity
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Motivation and Contribution
11.2 Preliminaries
11.2.1 Quantum Computing
11.2.1.1 Basics of Quantum System
11.2.1.2 Architecture of Quantum System
11.2.1.3 Key Characteristics of Quantum Computing
11.2.1.4 Available Quantum Platform
11.2.2 Quantum Key Distribution
11.2.2.1 Discrete Variable QKD
11.2.2.2 Continuous Variable QKD
11.2.2.3 Measurement Device-Independent QKD
11.2.3 Blockchain
11.2.4 Reason for Blend of Blockchain and Quantum-Based Security in Applications
Within Smart Cities
11.3 Related Work
11.4 Background of Proposed Work
11.4.1 Design Goal of Proposed Work
11.4.1.1 Impersonation Attack
11.4.1.2 Sybil Attack
11.4.1.3 Message Modification Attack
11.4.1.4 Message Replay Attack
11.4.1.5 Denial-of-Service Attack
11.4.1.6 Source Authentication
11.4.1.7 Message Integrity
11.4.1.8 Identity Privacy Preservation
11.4.2 Conversion of Bits From One State to Another
11.4.3 Decision Sequence
11.4.4 Interconversion Rule
11.4.5 Measurement Sequence
11.4.6 Template and Encrypted Key Generation
11.5 Proposed Work
11.5.1 System Architecture
11.5.2 Quantum Information Transmission
11.5.3 Life Cycle of Smart Contract
11.5.4 Algorithm Design and Flow
11.5.4.1 Stage 1: Contract Development
11.5.4.2 Stage 2: Contract Release
11.5.4.3 Step 3: Contract Execution
11.6 Conclusion
References
12. Security Threats and Privacy Challenges in the Quantum Blockchain: A Contemporary Survey
K. Sentamilselvan, Suresh P., Kamalam G. K., Muthukrishnan H., Logeswaran K. and Keerthika P.
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of Blockchain
12.2.1 Public Blockchain
12.2.2 Private Blockchain
12.2.3 Hybrid Blockchain
12.2.4 Consortium Blockchain
12.3 Quantum Blockchain: State of the Art
12.3.1 Blockchain Consensus Algorithm
12.3.1.1 Proof of Work
12.3.1.2 Proof of Stake
12.3.1.3 Proof of Activity
12.3.2 Quantum Computation Algorithms
12.3.2.1 Grover's Algorithm
12.3.2.2 Shor's Algorithm
12.4 Voting Protocol
12.4.1 Voting on Quantum Blockchain
12.4.2 Security Requirements
12.4.2.1 Obscurity
12.4.2.2 Binding
12.4.2.3 Non-Reusability
12.4.2.4 Verifiability
12.4.2.5 Eligibility
12.4.2.6 Fairness
12.4.2.7 Self-Tallying
12.5 Security and Privacy Issues in Quantum Blockchain
12.5.1 Public Key Cryptography
12.5.2 Hash Functions
12.6 Challenges and Research Perspective in Quantum Blockchain
12.6.1 Fast Evolution in Quantum Computing
12.6.2 Transition From Pre- to Post-Quantum Blockchain
12.6.3 Computational and Energy Efficiency
12.6.4 Standardization
12.6.5 Hardware Incompatibility in Quantum Blockchain
12.6.6 Large Cipher Text Overheads
12.6.7 Quantum Blockchain
12.7 Security Threats in Quantum Blockchain
12.7.1 Threats in Smart City Implementation
12.8 Applications of Quantum Blockchain
12.8.1 Banking and Finance
12.8.2 Healthcare
12.8.3 Food Industry
12.8.4 Asset Trading
12.8.5 E-Payment
12.8.6 Government Sector
12.8.7 IOTA in Quantum Blockchain
12.9 Characteristics of Post-Quantum Blockchain Schemes
12.9.1 Small Key Size
12.9.2 Small Hash Length and Signature
12.9.3 Processing Speed of Data
12.9.4 Low Energy Consumption
12.9.5 Low Computational Complexity
12.10 Conclusion
References
13. Exploration of Quantum Blockchain Techniques Towards Sustainable Future Cybersecurity
H. Muthukrishnan, P. Suresh, K. Logeswaran and K. Sentamilselvan
13.1 Introduction to Blockchain
13.1.1 Blockchain History
13.1.2 Why Blockchain?
13.2 Insights on Quantum Computing
13.2.1 Quantum Supremacy
13.2.2 What is Quantum Supremacy?
13.2.3 Is Quantum Computing a Cybersecurity Threat?
13.2.4 Quantum Computing is not a Real Threat to Cryptocurrencies
13.2.5 Need for Quantum Computing in Blockchain
13.2.6 Ensuring a Secure, Functioning, and Resilient Critical Infrastructure
13.2.7 Critical Infrastructure’s Unique Threat Landscape
13.2.8 Response to the Quantum Threat and Blockchain
13.2.9 Ethereum 2.0 will be Quantum Resistant
13.3 Quantum Computing Algorithms
13.3.1 Grover’s Algorithm
13.3.2 Shor’s Algorithm
13.4 Quantum Secured Blockchain
13.4.1 Cybersecurity
13.4.2 Cyber-Physical Systems
13.4.3 Cybercrime and Cybersecurity Challenges
13.4.4 Community Cybersecurity Maturity Model
13.4.5 Cybersecurity in Smart Grid Systems
13.4.6 Smart Cities: Sustainable Future
13.5 Conclusion 339 References
14. Estimation of Bitcoin Price Trends Using Supervised Learning Approaches
Prasannavenkatesan Theerthagiri
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Bitcoin
14.1.2 COVID-19 and Bitcoin
14.1.3 Price Prediction
14.2 Related Work
14.3 Methodology
14.3.1 Data Collection
14.3.2 Feature Engineering and Evaluation
14.3.3 Modeling
14.3.3.1 Linear Regression
14.3.3.2 Random Forest
14.3.3.3 Support Vector Machine
14.3.3.4 Recurrent Neural Network
14.3.3.5 Long Short-Term Memory
14.3.3.6 Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average
14.4 Implementation of the Proposed Work
14.5 Results Evaluation and Discussion
14.6 Conclusion
References
Index
Back to Top
Preface
1. Introduction to Classical Cryptography
Vani Rajasekar, Premalatha J., Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj and Oana Geman
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Substitution Ciphers
1.2.1 Caesar Cipher
1.2.2 Polyalphabetic Cipher
1.2.2.1 Working of Polyalphabetic Cipher
1.2.2.2 Cracking of Cipher Text
1.2.3 Hill Cipher
1.2.4 Playfair Cipher
1.2.4.1 Rules for Encrypting the Playfair Cipher
1.3 Transposition Cipher
1.3.1 Columnar Transposition
1.3.2 Rail Fence Transposition
1.3.3 Route Cipher
1.3.4 Double Transposition
1.4 Symmetric Encryption Technique
1.4.1 Key Management
1.4.2 Key Generation
1.4.3 Key Exchange
1.4.4 Data Encryption Standard
1.4.4.1 Structure of DES
1.4.4.2 Fiestel Function
1.4.5 Advanced Encryption Standard
1.4.5.1 Operation in AES
1.4.6 Applications of Symmetric Cipher
1.4.7 Drawback of Symmetric Encryption
1.4.7.1 Key Exhaustion
1.4.7.2 Key Management at Large Scale
1.4.7.3 Attribution Data
1.5 Asymmetric Encryption Technique
1.5.1 Rivest-Shamir-Adleman Encryption Algorithm
1.5.2 Elliptic Curve Cryptography
1.5.2.1 Elliptic Curve
1.5.2.2 Difference Between ECC and RSA
1.5.2.3 Advantages and Security of ECC
1.5.3 Hyperelliptic Curve Cryptography
1.6 Digital Signatures
1.6.1 Working of Digital Signature
1.6.2 Creation of Digital Signature
1.6.3 Message Authentication Code
1.6.3.1 Limitation on MAC
1.6.3.2 One Time MAC
1.6.4 Secure Hash Algorithm
1.6.4.1 Characteristics of SHA
1.6.4.2 Applications of SHA
1.6.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Signature
1.6.5.1 Advantages of Digital Signature
1.6.5.2 Disadvantages of Digital Signature
1.6.6 Conclusion
References
2. Quantum Cryptographic Techniques
Malathy S., Santhiya M., and Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj
2.1 Post-Quantum Cryptography
2.2 Strength of Quantum Cryptography
2.3 Working Principle of Quantum Cryptography
2.4 Example of Quantum Cryptography
2.5 Fundamentals of Quantum Cryptography
2.5.1 Entanglement
2.5.1.1 Entanglement State
2.6 Problems With the One-Time Pad and Key Distribution
2.7 Quantum No-Cloning Property
2.8 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
2.9 Quantum Key Distribution
2.10 Cybersecurity Risks Prevailing in Current Cryptographic Techniques
2.11 Implementation of Quantum-Safe Cryptography
2.12 Practical Usage of Existing QKD Solutions
2.13 Attributes of Quantum Key Distribution
2.13.1 Key Rate
2.13.2 Length of the Link
2.13.3 Key Material Production
2.13.4 Robustness
2.13.5 Usage of the Key
2.14 Quantum Key Distribution Protocols
2.14.1 BB84 Protocol
2.14.2 Decoy State Protocol
2.14.3 T12 Protocol
2.14.4 SARG04 Protocol
2.14.5 Six-State Protocol
2.14.6 E91 Protocol
2.14.7 COW Protocol (Coherent One-Way Protocol)
2.14.8 HDQKD Protocol (High-Dimensional Quantum Key Distribution)
2.14.9 KMB09 Protocol
2.14.10 B92 Protocol
2.14.11 MSZ96 Protocol
2.14.12 DPS Protocol
2.14.13 Three-Stage Quantum Protocol
2.14.14 S09 Protocol
2.15 Applications of Quantum Cryptography
2.15.1 Multipoint Secure Computation
2.15.2 E-Commerce
2.15.3 Cloud Computing
2.16 Conclusion
References
3. Evolution of Quantum Blockchain
Dinesh Komarasamy and Jenita Hermina J.
3.1 Introduction of Blockchain
3.2 Introduction of Quantum Computing
3.2.1 Background and History of Quantum Computers
3.2.2 Scope of Quantum Computers in Blockchain
3.3 Restrictions of Blockchain Quantum
3.3.1 Post-Quantum Cryptography
3.3.1.1 Lattice Cryptography
3.3.2 Multivariate Cryptography
3.3.3 Hash Cryptography
3.3.4 Code Cryptography
3.4 Post-Quantum Cryptography Features
3.5 Quantum Cryptography
3.5.1 Working of QKD
3.5.2 Protocols of QKD
3.5.2.1 Prepare-and-Measure
3.5.2.2 Entanglement
3.6 Comparison Between Traditional and Quantum-Resistant Cryptosystems
3.7 Quantum Blockchain Applications
3.8 Blockchain Applications
3.8.1 Financial Application
3.8.2 Non-Financial Application
3.9 Limitations of Blockchain
3.10 Conclusion
References
4. Development of the Quantum Bitcoin (BTC)
Gaurav Dhuriya, Aradhna Saini and Prashant Johari
4.1 Introduction of BTC
4.2 Extract
4.3 Preservation
4.3.1 The Role of Cryptography in BTC
4.3.2 The Role of Decentralization in BTC
4.3.3 The Role of Immutability in BTC
4.3.4 The Role of Proof-of-Exertion in BTC
4.4 The Growth of BTC
4.5 Quantum Computing (History and Future)
4.6 Quantum Computation
4.7 The Proposal of Quantum Calculation
4.8 What Are Quantum Computers and How They Exertion?
4.9 Post-Quantum Cryptography
4.10 Difficulties Facing BTC
4.11 Conclusion
References
5. A Conceptual Model for Quantum Blockchain
Vijayalakshmi P., Abraham Dinakaran and Korhan Cengiz
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Distributed Ledger Technology
5.2.1 Features of DLT
5.2.2 Quantum Computing
5.2.2.1 Growth of Quantum Computing
5.2.2.2 A Comparison of Classical Computing and Quantum Computing
5.2.3 Blockchain and Quantum Blockchain
5.2.3.1 Characteristics of Blockchain
5.2.3.2 Quantum Blockchain
5.3 Hardware Composition of the Quantum Computer
5.4 Framework Styles of Quantum Blockchain
5.4.1 Computational Elements
5.4.1.1 Qubits
5.4.1.2 Quantum Gates and Quantum Computation
5.4.2 The Architectural Patterns
5.4.2.1 Layered Approach
5.4.2.2 Securing Mechanisms for Quantum Blockchain
5.5 Fundamental Integrants
5.5.1 Interaction of Quantum Systems
5.5.2 Failure of Quantum Systems
5.5.3 Security of Quantum Systems
5.5.4 Challenges and Opportunities
5.6 Conclusion
References
6. Challenges and Research Perspective of Post–Quantum Blockchain Venu K. and Krishnakumar B.
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Cryptocurrency
6.1.2 Blockchain
6.1.2.1 Bitcoin and Cryptocurrencies
6.1.2.2 Insolent Bonds
6.1.2.3 Imminent Stage
6.1.3 Physiology of Blockchain
6.1.4 Blockchain Network
6.1.5 Blockchain Securities
6.1.5.1 Public Key Cryptography an Asymmetric Cryptosystem
6.1.5.2 Digital Signature’s Hashing Algorithm
6.1.6 Bitcoin Blockchain
6.1.7 Quantum Cryptography
6.1.8 Quantum Blockchain
6.1.9 Post–Quantum Cryptography
6.2 Post–Quantum Blockchain Cryptosystems
6.2.1 Post–Quantum Blockchain Cryptosystems Based on Public Keys
6.2.1.1 Code–Based Cryptosystem
6.2.1.2 Multivariant–Based Cryptosystem
6.2.1.3 Lattice–Based Cryptosystem
6.2.1.4 Super Singular Elliptic–Curve Isogeny Cryptosystem
6.2.1.5 Hybrid–Based Cryptosystem
6.2.2 Post–Quantum Blockchain Signatures
6.2.2.1 Code–Centred Digital Signature
6.2.2.2 Multivariant–Based Digital Signature
6.2.2.3 Lattice–Based Digital Signature
6.2.2.4 Super Singular Elliptic–Curve Isogeny Digital Signature
6.2.2.5 Hash–Based Digital Signature
6.3 Post–Quantum Blockchain Performance Comparison
6.3.1 Encryption Algorithm
6.3.2 Digital Signatures
6.4 Future Scopes of Post–Quantum Blockchain
6.4.1 NIST Standardization
6.4.2 Key and Signature Size
6.4.3 Faster Evolution
6.4.4 Post–Quantum Blockchain From Pre–Quantum
6.4.5 Generation of Keys
6.4.6 Computational Efficiency
6.4.7 Choosing Hardware
6.4.8 Overheads on Large Ciphertext
6.5 Conclusion
References
7. Post-Quantum Cryptosystems for Blockchain
K. Tamil Selvi and R. Thamilselvan
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Basics of Blockchain
7.3 Quantum and Post-Quantum Cryptography
7.4 Post-Quantum Cryptosystems for Blockchain
7.4.1 Public Key Post-Quantum Cryptosystems
7.4.1.1 Code-Based Cryptosystems
7.4.1.2 Lattice-Based Cryptosystems
7.4.1.3 Multivariate-Based Cryptosystem
7.4.1.4 Supersingular Elliptic Curve Isogency-Based Cryptosystems
7.4.1.5 Hybrid Cryptosystems
7.4.2 Post-Quantum Signing Algorithms
7.4.2.1 Code-Based Cryptosystems
7.4.2.2 Lattice-Based Cryptosystems
7.4.2.3 Multivariate Based Cryptosystem
7.4.2.4 Supersingular Elliptic Curve Isogency-Based Cryptosystem
7.4.2.5 Hash-Based Cryptosystem
7.5 Other Cryptosystems for Post-Quantum Blockchain
7.6 Conclusion
References
8. Post-Quantum Confidential Transaction Protocols
R. Manjula Devi, P. Keerthika, P. Suresh, R. Venkatesan, M. Sangeetha, C. Sagana
and K. Devendran
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Confidential Transactions
8.2.1 Confidential Transaction Protocol
8.3 Zero-Knowledge Protocol
8.3.1 Properties
8.3.2 Types
8.3.2.1 Interactive Zero-Knowledge Proof
8.3.2.2 Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Proof (NIZKP)
8.3.3 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Graph Isomorphism
8.3.4 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Graph Non-Isomorphism
8.3.5 Zero-Knowledge Proof for NP-Complete Problems
8.3.5.1 Three-Coloring Problem
8.3.6 Zero-Knowledge Proofs for Specific Lattice Problems
8.3.7 Zero-Knowledge Proof for Blockchain
8.3.7.1 Messaging
8.3.7.2 Authentication
8.3.7.3 Storage Protection
8.3.7.4 Sending Private Blockchain Transactions
8.3.7.5 Complex Documentation
8.3.7.6 File System Control
8.3.7.7 Security for Sensitive Information
8.3.8 Zero-Knowledge Proof for High Level Compilers
8.4 Zero-Knowledge Protocols
8.4.1 Schnorr Protocol
8.4.2 Σ-Protocols
8.4.2.1 Three-Move Structure
8.5 Transformation Methods
8.5.1 CRS Model
8.5.2 Fiat-Shamir Heuristic
8.5.3 Unruh Transformation
8.6 Conclusion
References
9. A Study on Post-Quantum Blockchain: The Next Innovation for Smarter and Safer Cities
G.K. Kamalam and R.S. Shudapreyaa
9.1 Blockchain: The Next Big Thing in Smart City Technology
9.1.1 What is Blockchain, and How Does It Work?
9.1.1.1 The Blockchain Advantage
9.1.1.2 What is the Mechanism Behind Blockchain?
9.1.2 The Requirements for a Blockchain System
9.1.3 Using the Blockchain to Improve Smart City Efforts
9.2 Application of Blockchain Technology in Smart Cities
9.2.1 Big Data
9.2.1.1 Role of Big Data
9.2.1.2 Problems of Big Data
9.2.2 Energy Internet
9.2.2.1 Role of Energy Internet
9.2.2.2 Problems of Energy Internet
9.2.3 Internet of Things
9.2.3.1 Role of IoT
9.2.3.2 Problems of IoT
9.3 Using Blockchain to Secure Smart Cities
9.3.1 Blockchain Technology
9.3.2 Framework for Security
9.3.2.1 Physical Layer
9.3.2.2 Communication Layer
9.3.2.3 Database Layer
9.3.2.4 Interface Layer
9.4 Blockchain Public Key Security
9.4.1 Hash Function Security
9.4.2 Characteristics and Post-Quantum Schemes of Blockchain
9.5 Quantum Threats on Blockchain Enabled Smart City
9.5.1 Shor’s Algorithm
9.5.1.1 Modular Exponentiation
9.5.1.2 Factoring
9.5.2 Grover’s Algorithm
9.6 Post-Quantum Blockchain–Based Smart City Solutions
9.6.1 Lattice-Based Cryptography
9.6.2 Quantum Distributed Key
9.6.3 Quantum Entanglement in Time
9.7 Quantum Computing Fast Evolution
9.7.1 Transition—Pre-Quantum Blockchain to Post-Quantum Blockchain
9.7.2 Large Scale and Signature Size
9.7.3 Slow Key Generation
9.7.4 Computational and Energy Efficiency
9.7.5 Bockchain Hardware Unusability
9.7.6 Overheads Due to Large Ciphertext
9.7.7 Quantum Blockchain
9.8 Conclusion
References
10. Quantum Protocols for Hash-Based Blockchain
Sathya K., Premalatha J., Balamurugan Balusamy and Sarumathi Murali
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Consensus Protocols
10.2.1 Proof of Work (PoW)
10.2.2 Proof of Stake (PoS)
10.2.3 Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS)
10.2.4 Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT)
10.2.5 Proof of Capacity
10.2.6 Proof of Elapsed Time
10.3 Quantum Blockchain
10.3.1 Quantum Protocols in Blockchain
10.3.1.1 Quantum Bit Commitment Protocols
10.3.1.2 Quantum Voting Protocols
10.4 Quantum Honest-Success Byzantine Agreement (QHBA) Protocol
10.5 MatRiCT Protocol
10.5.1 Setting Up the System Parameters
10.5.2 Generation of Public-Private Key Pairs
10.5.3 Generation of Serial Number for the Given Secret Key
10.5.4 Creation of Coins
10.5.5 Spending the Coins in Transaction
10.5.6 Verifying the Transaction
10.6 Conclusion
References
11. Post-Quantum Blockchain–Enabled Services in Scalable Smart Cities Kumar Prateek and Soumyadev Maity
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Motivation and Contribution
11.2 Preliminaries
11.2.1 Quantum Computing
11.2.1.1 Basics of Quantum System
11.2.1.2 Architecture of Quantum System
11.2.1.3 Key Characteristics of Quantum Computing
11.2.1.4 Available Quantum Platform
11.2.2 Quantum Key Distribution
11.2.2.1 Discrete Variable QKD
11.2.2.2 Continuous Variable QKD
11.2.2.3 Measurement Device-Independent QKD
11.2.3 Blockchain
11.2.4 Reason for Blend of Blockchain and Quantum-Based Security in Applications
Within Smart Cities
11.3 Related Work
11.4 Background of Proposed Work
11.4.1 Design Goal of Proposed Work
11.4.1.1 Impersonation Attack
11.4.1.2 Sybil Attack
11.4.1.3 Message Modification Attack
11.4.1.4 Message Replay Attack
11.4.1.5 Denial-of-Service Attack
11.4.1.6 Source Authentication
11.4.1.7 Message Integrity
11.4.1.8 Identity Privacy Preservation
11.4.2 Conversion of Bits From One State to Another
11.4.3 Decision Sequence
11.4.4 Interconversion Rule
11.4.5 Measurement Sequence
11.4.6 Template and Encrypted Key Generation
11.5 Proposed Work
11.5.1 System Architecture
11.5.2 Quantum Information Transmission
11.5.3 Life Cycle of Smart Contract
11.5.4 Algorithm Design and Flow
11.5.4.1 Stage 1: Contract Development
11.5.4.2 Stage 2: Contract Release
11.5.4.3 Step 3: Contract Execution
11.6 Conclusion
References
12. Security Threats and Privacy Challenges in the Quantum Blockchain: A Contemporary Survey
K. Sentamilselvan, Suresh P., Kamalam G. K., Muthukrishnan H., Logeswaran K. and Keerthika P.
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of Blockchain
12.2.1 Public Blockchain
12.2.2 Private Blockchain
12.2.3 Hybrid Blockchain
12.2.4 Consortium Blockchain
12.3 Quantum Blockchain: State of the Art
12.3.1 Blockchain Consensus Algorithm
12.3.1.1 Proof of Work
12.3.1.2 Proof of Stake
12.3.1.3 Proof of Activity
12.3.2 Quantum Computation Algorithms
12.3.2.1 Grover's Algorithm
12.3.2.2 Shor's Algorithm
12.4 Voting Protocol
12.4.1 Voting on Quantum Blockchain
12.4.2 Security Requirements
12.4.2.1 Obscurity
12.4.2.2 Binding
12.4.2.3 Non-Reusability
12.4.2.4 Verifiability
12.4.2.5 Eligibility
12.4.2.6 Fairness
12.4.2.7 Self-Tallying
12.5 Security and Privacy Issues in Quantum Blockchain
12.5.1 Public Key Cryptography
12.5.2 Hash Functions
12.6 Challenges and Research Perspective in Quantum Blockchain
12.6.1 Fast Evolution in Quantum Computing
12.6.2 Transition From Pre- to Post-Quantum Blockchain
12.6.3 Computational and Energy Efficiency
12.6.4 Standardization
12.6.5 Hardware Incompatibility in Quantum Blockchain
12.6.6 Large Cipher Text Overheads
12.6.7 Quantum Blockchain
12.7 Security Threats in Quantum Blockchain
12.7.1 Threats in Smart City Implementation
12.8 Applications of Quantum Blockchain
12.8.1 Banking and Finance
12.8.2 Healthcare
12.8.3 Food Industry
12.8.4 Asset Trading
12.8.5 E-Payment
12.8.6 Government Sector
12.8.7 IOTA in Quantum Blockchain
12.9 Characteristics of Post-Quantum Blockchain Schemes
12.9.1 Small Key Size
12.9.2 Small Hash Length and Signature
12.9.3 Processing Speed of Data
12.9.4 Low Energy Consumption
12.9.5 Low Computational Complexity
12.10 Conclusion
References
13. Exploration of Quantum Blockchain Techniques Towards Sustainable Future Cybersecurity
H. Muthukrishnan, P. Suresh, K. Logeswaran and K. Sentamilselvan
13.1 Introduction to Blockchain
13.1.1 Blockchain History
13.1.2 Why Blockchain?
13.2 Insights on Quantum Computing
13.2.1 Quantum Supremacy
13.2.2 What is Quantum Supremacy?
13.2.3 Is Quantum Computing a Cybersecurity Threat?
13.2.4 Quantum Computing is not a Real Threat to Cryptocurrencies
13.2.5 Need for Quantum Computing in Blockchain
13.2.6 Ensuring a Secure, Functioning, and Resilient Critical Infrastructure
13.2.7 Critical Infrastructure’s Unique Threat Landscape
13.2.8 Response to the Quantum Threat and Blockchain
13.2.9 Ethereum 2.0 will be Quantum Resistant
13.3 Quantum Computing Algorithms
13.3.1 Grover’s Algorithm
13.3.2 Shor’s Algorithm
13.4 Quantum Secured Blockchain
13.4.1 Cybersecurity
13.4.2 Cyber-Physical Systems
13.4.3 Cybercrime and Cybersecurity Challenges
13.4.4 Community Cybersecurity Maturity Model
13.4.5 Cybersecurity in Smart Grid Systems
13.4.6 Smart Cities: Sustainable Future
13.5 Conclusion 339 References
14. Estimation of Bitcoin Price Trends Using Supervised Learning Approaches
Prasannavenkatesan Theerthagiri
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Bitcoin
14.1.2 COVID-19 and Bitcoin
14.1.3 Price Prediction
14.2 Related Work
14.3 Methodology
14.3.1 Data Collection
14.3.2 Feature Engineering and Evaluation
14.3.3 Modeling
14.3.3.1 Linear Regression
14.3.3.2 Random Forest
14.3.3.3 Support Vector Machine
14.3.3.4 Recurrent Neural Network
14.3.3.5 Long Short-Term Memory
14.3.3.6 Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average
14.4 Implementation of the Proposed Work
14.5 Results Evaluation and Discussion
14.6 Conclusion
References
Index
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