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Submit a ProposalBiofuel Extraction Techniques
 | Edited by Lalit Prasad, Subhalaxmi Pradhan, and S.N. Naik Copyright: 2023 | Status: Published ISBN: 9781119829324 | Hardcover | 561 pages Price: $225 USD  |
One Line Description
Written and edited by a team of world-class engineers, this groundbreaking new volume presents the current state of the art in the processing of feedstocks for biofuel production and end use application, extraction techniques, valorization of biofuel waste, and recent advances in biorefineries and the recycling industries.
Audience
Researchers, academicians, engineers, policy makers, and other professionals and stake holders working in the energy sector
Researchers, academicians, engineers, policy makers, and other professionals and stake holders working in the energy sector
Description
Biofuels are a viable alternative to petroleum-based fuel because they are produced from organic materials such as plants and their wastes, agricultural crops, and by-products. The development of cutting-edge technology has increased the need for energy significantly, which has resulted in an overreliance on fossil fuels. Renewable fuels are an important subject of research because of their biodegradability, eco-friendliness, decrease in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and favorable socioeconomic consequences to counteract imitations of fossil fuels.
Different extraction techniques are used for the production of biofuel from renewable feedstocks. Biodiesel is a promising biofuel which is produced by transesterification of plant-based oils. Extraction of oil includes old traditional methods, solvent extraction, mechanical extraction, microwave-assisted and ultrasonic-assisted methods. Many innovative techniques are also used to overcome the limitations of conventional methods. Microwave-assisted, ultrasonic-assisted is some of the new techniques which include the pre-treatment of the raw material using either ultrasonic waves or radio waves which helps in increasing the efficiency of the extraction of oil and improves the final quality of the oil.
Written and edited a team of experts in the field, this exciting new volume covers all of these technologies with a view toward giving the engineer, scientist, or other professional the practical solutions for their day-to-day problems. It also contains the theory behind the practical applications, as well, making it the perfect reference for students and engineers alike. Whether for the veteran engineer or scientist, the student, or a manager or other technician working in the field, this volume is a must-have for any library.
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Biofuels are a viable alternative to petroleum-based fuel because they are produced from organic materials such as plants and their wastes, agricultural crops, and by-products. The development of cutting-edge technology has increased the need for energy significantly, which has resulted in an overreliance on fossil fuels. Renewable fuels are an important subject of research because of their biodegradability, eco-friendliness, decrease in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and favorable socioeconomic consequences to counteract imitations of fossil fuels.
Different extraction techniques are used for the production of biofuel from renewable feedstocks. Biodiesel is a promising biofuel which is produced by transesterification of plant-based oils. Extraction of oil includes old traditional methods, solvent extraction, mechanical extraction, microwave-assisted and ultrasonic-assisted methods. Many innovative techniques are also used to overcome the limitations of conventional methods. Microwave-assisted, ultrasonic-assisted is some of the new techniques which include the pre-treatment of the raw material using either ultrasonic waves or radio waves which helps in increasing the efficiency of the extraction of oil and improves the final quality of the oil.
Written and edited a team of experts in the field, this exciting new volume covers all of these technologies with a view toward giving the engineer, scientist, or other professional the practical solutions for their day-to-day problems. It also contains the theory behind the practical applications, as well, making it the perfect reference for students and engineers alike. Whether for the veteran engineer or scientist, the student, or a manager or other technician working in the field, this volume is a must-have for any library.
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Author / Editor Details
Lalit Prasad, PhD, is a professor in the Division of Chemistry at the School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, UP, India.
Lalit Prasad, PhD, is a professor in the Division of Chemistry at the School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, UP, India.
Subhalaxmi Pradhan, PhD, is also a professor in the Division of Chemistry at the School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, UP, India.
S. N. Naik, PhD, is a professor at the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India.
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Table of Contents
Preface
1. Plant Seed Oils and Their Potential for Biofuel Production in India
L. C. Meher and S. N. Naik
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background
1.3 Non-Edible Oil as Feedstock for Biodiesel
1.3.1 Jatropha
1.3.2 Pongamia
1.3.3 Mahua
1.3.4 Nahor
1.3.5 Rubber
1.3.6 Lesser Explored Non-Edible Oils for Biodiesel Feedstock in India
1.4 Fuel Qualities
1.4.1 Cetane Number
1.4.2 Acid Value
1.4.3 Ester Content, Glycerides, and Glycerol
1.4.4 Phosphorus Content
1.4.5 Iodine Value
1.4.6 Oxidation Stability
1.4.7 Linolenic Acid Methyl Esters
1.4.8 Polyunsaturated (≥ 4 Double Bonds) Methyl Esters
1.5 Conclusion
Author Contributions
References
2. Processing of Feedstock in Context of Biodiesel Production
Durgawati and Rama Chandra Pradhan
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Feedstock in Context of Biodiesel
2.3 Processing of Oilseeds
2.3.1 Pretreatment
2.3.2 Decortication
2.3.2.1 Characteristics of Oilseeds Required for Decortication
2.3.2.2 Decortication Method
2.4 Oil Extraction Methods
2.4.1 Aqueous Method
2.4.2 Hydraulic Press
2.4.3 Ghani (Animal or Power-Driven)
2.4.4 Solvent Extraction Method
2.4.5 Mechanical Extraction Method
2.4.6 Microwave Assisted Oil Extraction
2.4.7 Ultrasonic Assisted Oil Extraction
2.4.8 Supercritical Assisted Oil Extraction
2.5 Catalyst
2.5.1 Homogeneous Catalyst
2.5.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst
2.5.3 Biocatalyst
2.6 Production Process of Biodiesel
2.7 Techniques for Biodiesel Production
2.7.1 Catalytic Transesterification Technique
2.7.2 Pyrolysis
2.7.3 Microwave Assisted
2.7.4 Ultrasonic Assisted
2.7.5 Supercritical Assisted
2.8 Advantages & Disadvantages of Using Biodiesel
2.9 Current Challenges and Future Perspectives of Biodiesel
2.10 Summary
References
3. Extraction Techniques for Biodiesel Production
Soumya Parida and Subhalaxmi Pradhan
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Direct Use and Blending
3.3 Microemulsion
3.4 Pyrolysis
3.5 Transesterification
3.5.1 Homogeneous Catalyzed Transesterification
3.5.2 Heterogeneous Catalyzed Transesterification
3.5.3 Enzyme Catalyzed Transesterification
3.5.4 Supercritical Alcohol Transesterification
3.6 Intensification Methods for Biodiesel Production
3.6.1 Ultrasonic Method
3.6.2 Microwave Method
3.6.3 Cosolvent Method
3.6.4 Membrane Technology
3.6.5 Reactive Distillation
3.7 Conclusions
References
4. Role of Additives on Anaerobic Digestion, Biomethane Generation, and Stabilization of Process Parameters
Adya Isha, Bhaskar Jha, Tinku Casper D’ Silva, Subodh Kumar, Sameer Ahmed Khan, Dushyant Kumar, Ram Chandra and Virendra Kumar Vijay
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Anaerobic Digestion Process
4.3 Metallic Additives
4.4 Alkali Additives
4.5 Biological Additives
4.5.1 Microorganisms
4.5.2 Enzymes
4.6 Carbon-Based Additives
4.6.1 Graphene
4.6.2 Carbon Nanotubes
4.6.3 Activated Carbon
4.6.4 Biochar
4.7 Nanoparticles
4.7.1 Fe Nanoparticles
4.7.2 Nanoparticles of Ag and ZnO
4.7.3 Direct Interspecies Electron Transfer (DIET)
4.8 Other Natural Additives
4.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
5. An Overview on Established and Emerging Biogas Upgradation Systems for Improving Biomethane Quality
Tinku Casper D’ Silva, Adya Isha, Subodh Kumar, Sameer Ahmad Khan, Dushyant Kumar, Ram Chandra and Virendra Kumar Vijay
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Available Biogas Upgradation Techniques
5.3 Microbial Methane Enrichment
5.4 Bioelectrochemical System
5.5 Photosynthetic Biogas Upgradation
5.6 Techno-Economics of Biological Biogas Upgradation Technologies
5.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
6. Renewable Feedstocks for Biofuels
Monika Chauhan, Vanshika, Ajay Kumar, Diwakar Chauhan and Arvind Kumar Jain
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Sugar Containing Plant Crops
6.2.1 Sugar Cane (Saccharum officinarum)
6.2.2 Sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris L.)
6.2.3 Sweet Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench)
6.3 Crops
6.3.1 Corn (Zea mays)
6.3.2 CASSAVA (Manihot esculenta)
6.4 Oilseed
6.4.1 Soybean (Glycine max)
6.4.2 Palm (Elaeis guineensis)
6.4.3 Canola Oil
6.4.4 Sunflower Oil
6.4.5 Castor Oil
6.4.6 Cottonseed Oil
6.4.7 Jatropha Oil (Jatropha curcas)
6.4.8 Jojoba Oil
6.4.9 NEEM (Azadirachta indica)
6.5 Lignocellulosic Waste
6.5.1 Sugarcane Bagasse
6.5.2 Rice Husk
6.5.3 Corn Stover
6.5.4 Wheat Straw
6.6 Sea Waste
6.6.1 Algae Biomass and Oil
6.7 Liquid Waste
6.7.1 Vinasse
6.7.2 Glycerol
6.7.3 POME (Palm Oil Mill Effluent)
6.8 Conclusion
References
7. Extraction Techniques of Gas‑to‑Liquids (GtL) Fuels
Sonali Kesarwani, Divya Bajpai Tripathy and Pooja Bhadana
7.1 Introduction
7.2 History and Origin of Gas to Liquid Technology
7.3 What is Gas to Liquids (GtL) Fuel?
7.4 Need and Benefits from Gas to Liquid Technology
7.5 Extraction or Conversion Techniques of Gas to Liquid Fuels
7.5.1 Gas to Liquid by Direct Conversion
7.5.2 Gas to Liquid by Indirect Conversion
7.5.2.1 Natural Gas Reforming or Methane Reforming (Syngas)
7.5.2.2 Fischer-Tropsch (FT) Synthesis
7.5.2.3 Conversion
7.6 Advancements in Gas to Liquid Technology
7.7 Conclusions
References
8. Second Generation Biofuels and Extraction Techniques
Prashant Kumar, Praveen Kumar Sharma, Shreya Tripathi, Deepak Kumar, Ashween Deepak Nannaware, Shivani Chaturvedi and Prasant Kumar Rout
List of Abbreviations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Pre-Treatment of Lignocellulosic Biomasses
8.2.1 Physical Pre-Treatment Methods
8.2.2 Chemical Pre-Treatment Methods
8.2.3 Physico-Chemical Pre-Treatment Methods
8.2.4 Biological Pre-Treatment Methods
8.3 Extraction of Biofuel from Lignocellulosic Biomass
8.3.1 Pyrolysis
8.3.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction
8.4 Bioethanol
8.4.1 Aromatic Lignocellulosic Biomass as Potential Candidate for Bioethanol
8.4.2 Enzymatic Saccharification
8.4.3 Ethanol Conversion Processes
8.4.4 Process for the Production of Ethanol from Sugary Crops
8.4.5 Process for the Production of Ethanol from Starchy Crops
8.4.6 Process for the Production of Bioethanol from Cellulosic Biomass and Spent Aromatic Crops
8.4.7 Purification of Bioethanol
8.5 Biodiesel Production from Fatty Acids
8.5.1 Chemical Catalytic Process
8.5.1.1 Homogeneous Base-Catalysed Transesterification
8.5.1.2 Homogeneous Acid-Catalysed Transesterification
8.5.1.3 Heterogeneous Catalysts
8.5.1.4 Alkali Earth Metal Oxides
8.5.1.5 Acid/Base Zeolites
8.5.1.6 Heteropolyacids
8.5.1.7 Waste Biomass Derived Heterogeneous Catalysts
8.5.1.8 Heterogeneous Nanocatalysts
8.5.2 Biochemical Catalysts
8.6 Levulinic Acid (LA)
8.6.1 Extraction of Levulinic Acid (LA) from Waste and Lignocellulosic Biomass
8.7 Conclusions
References
9. Bio-Alcohol: Production, Purification, and Analysis Using Analytical Techniques
Smrita Singh, Susanta Roy, Lalit Prasad and Ashutosh Singh Chauhan
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biomethanol Extraction
9.2.1 Thermochemical Conversion Process
9.2.2 Biochemical Conversion Process
9.2.3 Anaerobic Digestion
9.3 Bioethanol Extraction
9.3.1 Extraction of Bioethanol from the Waste Flower (Starchy Material)
9.3.2 Analytical Methods for Determination of Bioethanol
9.3.3 Bioethanol Extraction from Sugarcane
9.4 Biopropanol Extraction
9.5 Bioglycerol Extraction
9.6 Bioethylene Glycol Extraction
9.7 Branched-Chain Bioalcohols Extraction
9.8 Purification of Bioalcohol
9.8.1 Distillation
9.8.2 Adsorption
9.8.3 Ozonation
9.8.4 Gas Striping
9.8.5 Pervaporation
9.8.6 Vaccum Fermentation
9.8.7 Solvent Extraction
9.9 Quantification of Bioalcohols
9.9.1 Gas Chromatography (GC)
9.9.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
9.9.3 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR)
9.9.4 Olfactometry
9.10 Recent Perspective of Bioalcohol Production
9.11 Conclusion and Future Trends of Bioalcohol
References
10. Studies on Extraction Techniques of Bio-Hydrogen
C. S. Madankar, Priti Borde and P. D. Meshram
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Bio-Hydrogen Production Process
10.2.1 Fermentation
10.2.1.1 Dark Fermentation
10.2.1.2 Photo Fermentation
10.2.1.3 Sequential Dark and Photo Fermentation
10.3 Bio-Photolysis
10.3.1 Direct Bio-Photolysis
10.3.2 Indirect Bio-Photolysis
10.4 Microbial Electrolysis Cell
10.5 Conclusion
References
11. Valorization of By-Products Produced During the Extraction and Purification of Biofuels
Subodh Kumar, Tinku Casper D’ Silva, Dushyant Kumar, Adya Isha, Sameer Ahmad Khan, Ram Chandra, Anushree Malik and Virendra Kumar Vijay
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biodiesel Production Process and Its Byproducts
11.2.1 Valorization of De-Oiled Seed Cakes
11.2.1.1 Valorization of De-Oiled Cake via Anaerobic Digestion Route
11.2.2 Valorization of Glycerol
11.2.2.1 Valorization of Glycerol via Anaerobic Digestion Route
11.2.2.2 Valorization of Glycerol via Biological Conversion Route
11.2.2.3 Valorization of Glycerol via Chemical Conversion Route
11.2.2.4 Valorization of Glycerol via Catalytic Conversion Route
11.2.2.5 Valorization of Glycerol via Thermochemical Conversion Route
11.3 Biorefinery Concept Based on Utilization of Whole Oilseed Plant
11.4 Valorization of Byproducts Obtained in the Bioethanol Fermentation Process
11.5 Valorization of Byproducts Obtained in Anaerobic Digestion Process
11.5.1 Valorization of CO2 Content in Biogas
11.5.2 Valorization of Digestate
11.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
12. Valorization of Byproducts Produced During Extraction and Purification of Biodiesel: A Promising Biofuel
Gunjan, Radhika Singh and Subhalaxmi Pradhan
List of Abbreviations
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Glycerol
12.2.1 Properties of Glycerol
12.2.2 Classifications of Glycerol
12.2.3 Global Glycerol Market
12.2.4 Applications
12.2.4.1 Conversion of Glycerol into Value-Added Product
12.2.4.2 Oxidation
12.2.4.3 Hydrogenolysis
12.2.4.4 Pyrolysis/Gasification
12.2.4.5 Dehydration
12.2.4.6 Oligomerization/Polymerization
12.2.4.7 Etherification
12.2.4.8 Carboxylation
12.2.4.9 Transesterification/Esterification
12.3 Glycerol Carbonate
12.3.1 Applications of Glycerol Carbonates
12.3.2 Synthetic Routes of Glycerol Carbonate
12.3.2.1 Direct Synthetic Routes
12.3.2.2 Indirect Routes of Synthesis
12.3.3 Catalytic Production of Glycerol Carbonate
12.3.3.1 Homogenous Catalysts
12.3.3.2 Enzyme as Biocatalyst
12.3.3.3 Heterogeneous Catalyst
12.4 Conclusions
References
13. Biofuel Applications: Quality Control and Assurance, Techno-Economics and Environmental Sustainability
Sameer Ahmad Khan, Dushyant Kumar, Subodh Kumar, Adya Isha, Tinku Casper D’ Silva, Ram Chandra and Virendra Kumar Vijay
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Solid Fuel
13.2.1 Applications of Briquettes
13.2.2 Biomass Briquettes
13.2.2.1 Ash Content
13.2.2.2 Moisture Content
13.2.2.3 Volatile Matter
13.2.2.4 Ultimate Analysis
13.2.2.5 Other Minor Elements
13.2.2.6 Calorific Value
13.2.2.7 Bulk Density
13.2.2.8 Mechanical Durability
13.2.2.9 Environmental Sustainability and Techno-Economics of Biomass Briquettes
13.2.3 Biochar Briquettes
13.2.3.1 Calorific Value
13.2.3.2 Moisture Content
13.2.3.3 Volatile Matter
13.2.3.4 Ash Content
13.2.3.5 Fixed Carbon
13.2.3.6 Granulation
13.2.3.7 Binder
13.2.3.8 Bulk Density
13.2.3.9 Burning Rate
13.2.3.10 Compressive Strength
13.2.3.11 Environmental and Techno-Economics of Biochar Briquettes
13.3 Liquid and Gaseous Biofuel
13.3.1 Application of Liquid and Gaseous Biofuel
13.3.1.1 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Generation
13.3.1.2 Heat Generation
13.3.1.3 Transportation Fuel
13.3.2 Bioethanol
13.3.2.1 Water Content
13.3.2.2 Ethanol and Methanol Content
13.3.2.3 Gum Content
13.3.2.4 Acidity
13.3.2.5 pHe
13.3.2.6 Appearance
13.3.2.7 Vapor Pressure
13.3.2.8 Relative Density/Specific Gravity
13.3.2.9 Copper, Sulfur, Benzene, Aromatics, and Olefins
13.3.2.10 Environmental Sustainability and Techno-Economics of Bioethanol
13.3.3 Biodiesel
13.3.3.1 Density and Viscosity
13.3.3.2 Sulphated Ash, Flash Point, and Carbon Residue
13.3.3.3 Cold Flow Properties
13.3.3.4 Water, Sediment, and Total Contamination
13.3.3.5 Copper-Strip Corrosion, Content of Phosphorus and Metals
13.3.3.6 Distillation, Iodine Value, Oxidation Stability, and Acid Value
13.3.3.7 Free Glycerine, Total Glycerine, Cetane Number and Lubricity
13.3.3.8 Environmental Sustainability and Techno-Economics of Biodiesel
13.3.4 Biogas
13.3.4.1 Biogas Analysis
13.3.4.2 Wobbe Index (WI)
13.3.4.3 Environmental Sustainability and Techno-Economics of Biogas
13.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
14. Role of CO2 Triggered Switchable Polarity Solvents and Supercritical Solvents During Biofuel Extraction
Anupama Sharma, Pinki Chakraborty, Karthikay Sankhyadhar and Sandeep Kumar
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Role of Solvent during Bio-Fuel Extraction
14.3 CO2 Triggered SPS for Extraction of Bio-Fuels
14.3.1 SPS for Production of Syngas
14.3.2 SPS for the Production of Biodiesel
14.3.3 SPS for the Production of Bio-Oil
14.3.4 SPS for the Production of Bio-Oil from Antarctic Krill
14.4 Supercritical Solvents and Bio-Fuel Extraction
14.4.1 SC-CO2 in Extraction of Algal Bio-Oil
14.4.2 Supercritical Ethanol as Solvent in Extraction of Bio-Oil from Sugarcane Bagasse
14.5 Challenges and Future Considerations
14.6 Conclusion
References
15. Efficiency of Catalysts During Biofuel Extraction
Gajanan Sahu, Sudipta Datta, Sujan Saha, Prakash D. Chavan, Deshal Yadav and Vishal Chauhan
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Biofuels
15.3 Biodiesel
15.4 Transesterification Reaction
15.5 Catalyst Used for Biodiesel Extraction
15.5.1 Chemical Catalyst
15.5.1.1 Homogeneous Catalyst
15.5.1.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst
15.5.2 Biological Catalyst/Enzyme Catalyst
15.5.2.1 Free Lipase
15.5.2.2 Traditionally Immobilized Lipase
15.5.2.3 Lipase Immobilized on MNPs
15.5.3 Nanocatalyst
15.6 Catalyst Used for Bioalcohol Extraction
15.7 Conclusion
References
16. Microorganisms as Effective CO2 Assimilator for Biofuel Production
Chandreyee Saha and Subhalaxmi Pradhan
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Microorganisms as Carbon Dioxide Assimilators
16.2.1 Algae
16.2.1.1 Mechanism of Carbon Capture by Algae
16.2.1.2 Carbon Sequestration by Algae
16.2.1.3 Biosynthesis of Lipids by Algae
16.2.2 Cyanobacteria
16.2.2.1 Carbon Capture and Sequestration by Cyanobacteria
16.2.3 Clostridia
16.2.3.1 Carbon Capture and Sequestration by Clostridia
16.2.4 Proteobacteria
16.2.5 Archaea
16.3 Biofuel Production by Microorganisms Using Carbon Capture
16.3.1 Biodiesel
16.3.2 Bioethanol
16.3.3 Biobutanol
16.3.4 Biogas and Biohydrogen
16.4 Recent Advancements in Biofuel Production
16.4.1 Nano-Additives
16.4.2 Genetic Engineering
16.4.3 UV Mutagenesis
16.4.4 Nuclear Radiation Mutagenesis
16.4.5 Adaptive Laboratory Evolution
16.5 Conclusion
References
17. Global Aspects of Biofuel Extraction
Shilpi Bhatnagar and Shilpi Khurana
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Biodiesel
17.3 Biogas
17.4 Bioethanol
17.5 Bio-Oil from Biomass
17.6 Conclusion
References
18. New Advancements of Biofuel Extractions and Future Trends
Rita Sharma, Kuldip Dwivedi, Bhavna Sharma and Shashank Sharma
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Major Advances in Production of Various Generations of Biofuels
18.1.2 Conventional and Advanced Biofuels
18.2 Extraction and Purification of Biofuels
18.2.1 Sugar and Starch-Based Ethanol
18.2.2 Conventional Biodiesel
18.2.3 Biogas Production
18.2.4 Cellulosic Ethanol
18.2.5 Syngas
18.2.6 Advanced Biodiesel
18.3 Application of Biofuels
18.3.1 Energy Production
18.3.2 Transportation
18.3.3 Heat Production
18.3.4 Charging Electronics
18.3.5 Clean Oil Spills and Grease
18.3.6 Cooking
18.3.7 Remove Paint and Adhesive
18.4 Advantages Associated with Biofuels
18.4.1 Fuel Efficiency
18.4.2 Effective
18.4.3 Durability of Vehicle Engine
18.4.4 Availability of Source
18.4.5 Renewable
18.4.6 Reduce Greenhouse Gases
18.4.7 Economic Security
18.4.8 Reduced Pollution
18.5 Disadvantages Associated with Biofuels
18.5.1 High-Cost Production
18.5.2 Monoculture
18.5.3 Fertilizer Usage
18.5.4 Industrial Pollution
18.5.5 Future Rise in Price
18.6 Future Trends
18.7 Conclusion
References
About the Editors
Index
Back to Top
Preface
1. Plant Seed Oils and Their Potential for Biofuel Production in India
L. C. Meher and S. N. Naik
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background
1.3 Non-Edible Oil as Feedstock for Biodiesel
1.3.1 Jatropha
1.3.2 Pongamia
1.3.3 Mahua
1.3.4 Nahor
1.3.5 Rubber
1.3.6 Lesser Explored Non-Edible Oils for Biodiesel Feedstock in India
1.4 Fuel Qualities
1.4.1 Cetane Number
1.4.2 Acid Value
1.4.3 Ester Content, Glycerides, and Glycerol
1.4.4 Phosphorus Content
1.4.5 Iodine Value
1.4.6 Oxidation Stability
1.4.7 Linolenic Acid Methyl Esters
1.4.8 Polyunsaturated (≥ 4 Double Bonds) Methyl Esters
1.5 Conclusion
Author Contributions
References
2. Processing of Feedstock in Context of Biodiesel Production
Durgawati and Rama Chandra Pradhan
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Feedstock in Context of Biodiesel
2.3 Processing of Oilseeds
2.3.1 Pretreatment
2.3.2 Decortication
2.3.2.1 Characteristics of Oilseeds Required for Decortication
2.3.2.2 Decortication Method
2.4 Oil Extraction Methods
2.4.1 Aqueous Method
2.4.2 Hydraulic Press
2.4.3 Ghani (Animal or Power-Driven)
2.4.4 Solvent Extraction Method
2.4.5 Mechanical Extraction Method
2.4.6 Microwave Assisted Oil Extraction
2.4.7 Ultrasonic Assisted Oil Extraction
2.4.8 Supercritical Assisted Oil Extraction
2.5 Catalyst
2.5.1 Homogeneous Catalyst
2.5.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst
2.5.3 Biocatalyst
2.6 Production Process of Biodiesel
2.7 Techniques for Biodiesel Production
2.7.1 Catalytic Transesterification Technique
2.7.2 Pyrolysis
2.7.3 Microwave Assisted
2.7.4 Ultrasonic Assisted
2.7.5 Supercritical Assisted
2.8 Advantages & Disadvantages of Using Biodiesel
2.9 Current Challenges and Future Perspectives of Biodiesel
2.10 Summary
References
3. Extraction Techniques for Biodiesel Production
Soumya Parida and Subhalaxmi Pradhan
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Direct Use and Blending
3.3 Microemulsion
3.4 Pyrolysis
3.5 Transesterification
3.5.1 Homogeneous Catalyzed Transesterification
3.5.2 Heterogeneous Catalyzed Transesterification
3.5.3 Enzyme Catalyzed Transesterification
3.5.4 Supercritical Alcohol Transesterification
3.6 Intensification Methods for Biodiesel Production
3.6.1 Ultrasonic Method
3.6.2 Microwave Method
3.6.3 Cosolvent Method
3.6.4 Membrane Technology
3.6.5 Reactive Distillation
3.7 Conclusions
References
4. Role of Additives on Anaerobic Digestion, Biomethane Generation, and Stabilization of Process Parameters
Adya Isha, Bhaskar Jha, Tinku Casper D’ Silva, Subodh Kumar, Sameer Ahmed Khan, Dushyant Kumar, Ram Chandra and Virendra Kumar Vijay
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Anaerobic Digestion Process
4.3 Metallic Additives
4.4 Alkali Additives
4.5 Biological Additives
4.5.1 Microorganisms
4.5.2 Enzymes
4.6 Carbon-Based Additives
4.6.1 Graphene
4.6.2 Carbon Nanotubes
4.6.3 Activated Carbon
4.6.4 Biochar
4.7 Nanoparticles
4.7.1 Fe Nanoparticles
4.7.2 Nanoparticles of Ag and ZnO
4.7.3 Direct Interspecies Electron Transfer (DIET)
4.8 Other Natural Additives
4.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
5. An Overview on Established and Emerging Biogas Upgradation Systems for Improving Biomethane Quality
Tinku Casper D’ Silva, Adya Isha, Subodh Kumar, Sameer Ahmad Khan, Dushyant Kumar, Ram Chandra and Virendra Kumar Vijay
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Available Biogas Upgradation Techniques
5.3 Microbial Methane Enrichment
5.4 Bioelectrochemical System
5.5 Photosynthetic Biogas Upgradation
5.6 Techno-Economics of Biological Biogas Upgradation Technologies
5.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
6. Renewable Feedstocks for Biofuels
Monika Chauhan, Vanshika, Ajay Kumar, Diwakar Chauhan and Arvind Kumar Jain
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Sugar Containing Plant Crops
6.2.1 Sugar Cane (Saccharum officinarum)
6.2.2 Sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris L.)
6.2.3 Sweet Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench)
6.3 Crops
6.3.1 Corn (Zea mays)
6.3.2 CASSAVA (Manihot esculenta)
6.4 Oilseed
6.4.1 Soybean (Glycine max)
6.4.2 Palm (Elaeis guineensis)
6.4.3 Canola Oil
6.4.4 Sunflower Oil
6.4.5 Castor Oil
6.4.6 Cottonseed Oil
6.4.7 Jatropha Oil (Jatropha curcas)
6.4.8 Jojoba Oil
6.4.9 NEEM (Azadirachta indica)
6.5 Lignocellulosic Waste
6.5.1 Sugarcane Bagasse
6.5.2 Rice Husk
6.5.3 Corn Stover
6.5.4 Wheat Straw
6.6 Sea Waste
6.6.1 Algae Biomass and Oil
6.7 Liquid Waste
6.7.1 Vinasse
6.7.2 Glycerol
6.7.3 POME (Palm Oil Mill Effluent)
6.8 Conclusion
References
7. Extraction Techniques of Gas‑to‑Liquids (GtL) Fuels
Sonali Kesarwani, Divya Bajpai Tripathy and Pooja Bhadana
7.1 Introduction
7.2 History and Origin of Gas to Liquid Technology
7.3 What is Gas to Liquids (GtL) Fuel?
7.4 Need and Benefits from Gas to Liquid Technology
7.5 Extraction or Conversion Techniques of Gas to Liquid Fuels
7.5.1 Gas to Liquid by Direct Conversion
7.5.2 Gas to Liquid by Indirect Conversion
7.5.2.1 Natural Gas Reforming or Methane Reforming (Syngas)
7.5.2.2 Fischer-Tropsch (FT) Synthesis
7.5.2.3 Conversion
7.6 Advancements in Gas to Liquid Technology
7.7 Conclusions
References
8. Second Generation Biofuels and Extraction Techniques
Prashant Kumar, Praveen Kumar Sharma, Shreya Tripathi, Deepak Kumar, Ashween Deepak Nannaware, Shivani Chaturvedi and Prasant Kumar Rout
List of Abbreviations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Pre-Treatment of Lignocellulosic Biomasses
8.2.1 Physical Pre-Treatment Methods
8.2.2 Chemical Pre-Treatment Methods
8.2.3 Physico-Chemical Pre-Treatment Methods
8.2.4 Biological Pre-Treatment Methods
8.3 Extraction of Biofuel from Lignocellulosic Biomass
8.3.1 Pyrolysis
8.3.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction
8.4 Bioethanol
8.4.1 Aromatic Lignocellulosic Biomass as Potential Candidate for Bioethanol
8.4.2 Enzymatic Saccharification
8.4.3 Ethanol Conversion Processes
8.4.4 Process for the Production of Ethanol from Sugary Crops
8.4.5 Process for the Production of Ethanol from Starchy Crops
8.4.6 Process for the Production of Bioethanol from Cellulosic Biomass and Spent Aromatic Crops
8.4.7 Purification of Bioethanol
8.5 Biodiesel Production from Fatty Acids
8.5.1 Chemical Catalytic Process
8.5.1.1 Homogeneous Base-Catalysed Transesterification
8.5.1.2 Homogeneous Acid-Catalysed Transesterification
8.5.1.3 Heterogeneous Catalysts
8.5.1.4 Alkali Earth Metal Oxides
8.5.1.5 Acid/Base Zeolites
8.5.1.6 Heteropolyacids
8.5.1.7 Waste Biomass Derived Heterogeneous Catalysts
8.5.1.8 Heterogeneous Nanocatalysts
8.5.2 Biochemical Catalysts
8.6 Levulinic Acid (LA)
8.6.1 Extraction of Levulinic Acid (LA) from Waste and Lignocellulosic Biomass
8.7 Conclusions
References
9. Bio-Alcohol: Production, Purification, and Analysis Using Analytical Techniques
Smrita Singh, Susanta Roy, Lalit Prasad and Ashutosh Singh Chauhan
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biomethanol Extraction
9.2.1 Thermochemical Conversion Process
9.2.2 Biochemical Conversion Process
9.2.3 Anaerobic Digestion
9.3 Bioethanol Extraction
9.3.1 Extraction of Bioethanol from the Waste Flower (Starchy Material)
9.3.2 Analytical Methods for Determination of Bioethanol
9.3.3 Bioethanol Extraction from Sugarcane
9.4 Biopropanol Extraction
9.5 Bioglycerol Extraction
9.6 Bioethylene Glycol Extraction
9.7 Branched-Chain Bioalcohols Extraction
9.8 Purification of Bioalcohol
9.8.1 Distillation
9.8.2 Adsorption
9.8.3 Ozonation
9.8.4 Gas Striping
9.8.5 Pervaporation
9.8.6 Vaccum Fermentation
9.8.7 Solvent Extraction
9.9 Quantification of Bioalcohols
9.9.1 Gas Chromatography (GC)
9.9.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
9.9.3 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR)
9.9.4 Olfactometry
9.10 Recent Perspective of Bioalcohol Production
9.11 Conclusion and Future Trends of Bioalcohol
References
10. Studies on Extraction Techniques of Bio-Hydrogen
C. S. Madankar, Priti Borde and P. D. Meshram
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Bio-Hydrogen Production Process
10.2.1 Fermentation
10.2.1.1 Dark Fermentation
10.2.1.2 Photo Fermentation
10.2.1.3 Sequential Dark and Photo Fermentation
10.3 Bio-Photolysis
10.3.1 Direct Bio-Photolysis
10.3.2 Indirect Bio-Photolysis
10.4 Microbial Electrolysis Cell
10.5 Conclusion
References
11. Valorization of By-Products Produced During the Extraction and Purification of Biofuels
Subodh Kumar, Tinku Casper D’ Silva, Dushyant Kumar, Adya Isha, Sameer Ahmad Khan, Ram Chandra, Anushree Malik and Virendra Kumar Vijay
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biodiesel Production Process and Its Byproducts
11.2.1 Valorization of De-Oiled Seed Cakes
11.2.1.1 Valorization of De-Oiled Cake via Anaerobic Digestion Route
11.2.2 Valorization of Glycerol
11.2.2.1 Valorization of Glycerol via Anaerobic Digestion Route
11.2.2.2 Valorization of Glycerol via Biological Conversion Route
11.2.2.3 Valorization of Glycerol via Chemical Conversion Route
11.2.2.4 Valorization of Glycerol via Catalytic Conversion Route
11.2.2.5 Valorization of Glycerol via Thermochemical Conversion Route
11.3 Biorefinery Concept Based on Utilization of Whole Oilseed Plant
11.4 Valorization of Byproducts Obtained in the Bioethanol Fermentation Process
11.5 Valorization of Byproducts Obtained in Anaerobic Digestion Process
11.5.1 Valorization of CO2 Content in Biogas
11.5.2 Valorization of Digestate
11.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
12. Valorization of Byproducts Produced During Extraction and Purification of Biodiesel: A Promising Biofuel
Gunjan, Radhika Singh and Subhalaxmi Pradhan
List of Abbreviations
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Glycerol
12.2.1 Properties of Glycerol
12.2.2 Classifications of Glycerol
12.2.3 Global Glycerol Market
12.2.4 Applications
12.2.4.1 Conversion of Glycerol into Value-Added Product
12.2.4.2 Oxidation
12.2.4.3 Hydrogenolysis
12.2.4.4 Pyrolysis/Gasification
12.2.4.5 Dehydration
12.2.4.6 Oligomerization/Polymerization
12.2.4.7 Etherification
12.2.4.8 Carboxylation
12.2.4.9 Transesterification/Esterification
12.3 Glycerol Carbonate
12.3.1 Applications of Glycerol Carbonates
12.3.2 Synthetic Routes of Glycerol Carbonate
12.3.2.1 Direct Synthetic Routes
12.3.2.2 Indirect Routes of Synthesis
12.3.3 Catalytic Production of Glycerol Carbonate
12.3.3.1 Homogenous Catalysts
12.3.3.2 Enzyme as Biocatalyst
12.3.3.3 Heterogeneous Catalyst
12.4 Conclusions
References
13. Biofuel Applications: Quality Control and Assurance, Techno-Economics and Environmental Sustainability
Sameer Ahmad Khan, Dushyant Kumar, Subodh Kumar, Adya Isha, Tinku Casper D’ Silva, Ram Chandra and Virendra Kumar Vijay
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Solid Fuel
13.2.1 Applications of Briquettes
13.2.2 Biomass Briquettes
13.2.2.1 Ash Content
13.2.2.2 Moisture Content
13.2.2.3 Volatile Matter
13.2.2.4 Ultimate Analysis
13.2.2.5 Other Minor Elements
13.2.2.6 Calorific Value
13.2.2.7 Bulk Density
13.2.2.8 Mechanical Durability
13.2.2.9 Environmental Sustainability and Techno-Economics of Biomass Briquettes
13.2.3 Biochar Briquettes
13.2.3.1 Calorific Value
13.2.3.2 Moisture Content
13.2.3.3 Volatile Matter
13.2.3.4 Ash Content
13.2.3.5 Fixed Carbon
13.2.3.6 Granulation
13.2.3.7 Binder
13.2.3.8 Bulk Density
13.2.3.9 Burning Rate
13.2.3.10 Compressive Strength
13.2.3.11 Environmental and Techno-Economics of Biochar Briquettes
13.3 Liquid and Gaseous Biofuel
13.3.1 Application of Liquid and Gaseous Biofuel
13.3.1.1 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Generation
13.3.1.2 Heat Generation
13.3.1.3 Transportation Fuel
13.3.2 Bioethanol
13.3.2.1 Water Content
13.3.2.2 Ethanol and Methanol Content
13.3.2.3 Gum Content
13.3.2.4 Acidity
13.3.2.5 pHe
13.3.2.6 Appearance
13.3.2.7 Vapor Pressure
13.3.2.8 Relative Density/Specific Gravity
13.3.2.9 Copper, Sulfur, Benzene, Aromatics, and Olefins
13.3.2.10 Environmental Sustainability and Techno-Economics of Bioethanol
13.3.3 Biodiesel
13.3.3.1 Density and Viscosity
13.3.3.2 Sulphated Ash, Flash Point, and Carbon Residue
13.3.3.3 Cold Flow Properties
13.3.3.4 Water, Sediment, and Total Contamination
13.3.3.5 Copper-Strip Corrosion, Content of Phosphorus and Metals
13.3.3.6 Distillation, Iodine Value, Oxidation Stability, and Acid Value
13.3.3.7 Free Glycerine, Total Glycerine, Cetane Number and Lubricity
13.3.3.8 Environmental Sustainability and Techno-Economics of Biodiesel
13.3.4 Biogas
13.3.4.1 Biogas Analysis
13.3.4.2 Wobbe Index (WI)
13.3.4.3 Environmental Sustainability and Techno-Economics of Biogas
13.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
14. Role of CO2 Triggered Switchable Polarity Solvents and Supercritical Solvents During Biofuel Extraction
Anupama Sharma, Pinki Chakraborty, Karthikay Sankhyadhar and Sandeep Kumar
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Role of Solvent during Bio-Fuel Extraction
14.3 CO2 Triggered SPS for Extraction of Bio-Fuels
14.3.1 SPS for Production of Syngas
14.3.2 SPS for the Production of Biodiesel
14.3.3 SPS for the Production of Bio-Oil
14.3.4 SPS for the Production of Bio-Oil from Antarctic Krill
14.4 Supercritical Solvents and Bio-Fuel Extraction
14.4.1 SC-CO2 in Extraction of Algal Bio-Oil
14.4.2 Supercritical Ethanol as Solvent in Extraction of Bio-Oil from Sugarcane Bagasse
14.5 Challenges and Future Considerations
14.6 Conclusion
References
15. Efficiency of Catalysts During Biofuel Extraction
Gajanan Sahu, Sudipta Datta, Sujan Saha, Prakash D. Chavan, Deshal Yadav and Vishal Chauhan
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Biofuels
15.3 Biodiesel
15.4 Transesterification Reaction
15.5 Catalyst Used for Biodiesel Extraction
15.5.1 Chemical Catalyst
15.5.1.1 Homogeneous Catalyst
15.5.1.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst
15.5.2 Biological Catalyst/Enzyme Catalyst
15.5.2.1 Free Lipase
15.5.2.2 Traditionally Immobilized Lipase
15.5.2.3 Lipase Immobilized on MNPs
15.5.3 Nanocatalyst
15.6 Catalyst Used for Bioalcohol Extraction
15.7 Conclusion
References
16. Microorganisms as Effective CO2 Assimilator for Biofuel Production
Chandreyee Saha and Subhalaxmi Pradhan
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Microorganisms as Carbon Dioxide Assimilators
16.2.1 Algae
16.2.1.1 Mechanism of Carbon Capture by Algae
16.2.1.2 Carbon Sequestration by Algae
16.2.1.3 Biosynthesis of Lipids by Algae
16.2.2 Cyanobacteria
16.2.2.1 Carbon Capture and Sequestration by Cyanobacteria
16.2.3 Clostridia
16.2.3.1 Carbon Capture and Sequestration by Clostridia
16.2.4 Proteobacteria
16.2.5 Archaea
16.3 Biofuel Production by Microorganisms Using Carbon Capture
16.3.1 Biodiesel
16.3.2 Bioethanol
16.3.3 Biobutanol
16.3.4 Biogas and Biohydrogen
16.4 Recent Advancements in Biofuel Production
16.4.1 Nano-Additives
16.4.2 Genetic Engineering
16.4.3 UV Mutagenesis
16.4.4 Nuclear Radiation Mutagenesis
16.4.5 Adaptive Laboratory Evolution
16.5 Conclusion
References
17. Global Aspects of Biofuel Extraction
Shilpi Bhatnagar and Shilpi Khurana
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Biodiesel
17.3 Biogas
17.4 Bioethanol
17.5 Bio-Oil from Biomass
17.6 Conclusion
References
18. New Advancements of Biofuel Extractions and Future Trends
Rita Sharma, Kuldip Dwivedi, Bhavna Sharma and Shashank Sharma
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Major Advances in Production of Various Generations of Biofuels
18.1.2 Conventional and Advanced Biofuels
18.2 Extraction and Purification of Biofuels
18.2.1 Sugar and Starch-Based Ethanol
18.2.2 Conventional Biodiesel
18.2.3 Biogas Production
18.2.4 Cellulosic Ethanol
18.2.5 Syngas
18.2.6 Advanced Biodiesel
18.3 Application of Biofuels
18.3.1 Energy Production
18.3.2 Transportation
18.3.3 Heat Production
18.3.4 Charging Electronics
18.3.5 Clean Oil Spills and Grease
18.3.6 Cooking
18.3.7 Remove Paint and Adhesive
18.4 Advantages Associated with Biofuels
18.4.1 Fuel Efficiency
18.4.2 Effective
18.4.3 Durability of Vehicle Engine
18.4.4 Availability of Source
18.4.5 Renewable
18.4.6 Reduce Greenhouse Gases
18.4.7 Economic Security
18.4.8 Reduced Pollution
18.5 Disadvantages Associated with Biofuels
18.5.1 High-Cost Production
18.5.2 Monoculture
18.5.3 Fertilizer Usage
18.5.4 Industrial Pollution
18.5.5 Future Rise in Price
18.6 Future Trends
18.7 Conclusion
References
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