-
Browse Book Series
- Adhesion and Adhesives: Fundamental and Applied Aspects
- Advances in Additive Manufacturing Technologies
- Advances in Antenna, Microwave and Communication Engineering
- Advances in Biofeedstocks and Biofuels
- Advances in Cyber Security
- Advances in Data Engineering and Machine Learning
- Advances in Disease Diagnosis, Drug Delivery and Treatment
- Advances in E-Mobility
- Advances in Hydrogen Production and Storage
- Advances in Intelligent and Scientific Computing (AISC)
- Advances in Learning Analytics for Intelligent Cloud-IoT Systems
- Advances in Membrane Processes
- Advances in Nanotechnology and Applications
- Advances in Natural Gas Engineering
- Advances in Pipes and Pipelines
- Advances in Production Engineering
- Advances in Solar Cell Materials and Storage
- Applied Functional Materials
- Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing for Industrial Transformation
- Astrobiology Perspectives on Life in the Universe
- Bioprocessing in Food Science
- Computational Intelligence and Biomedical Engineering
- Concise Introductions to AI and Data Science
- Cyber Systems and Quantum Engineering
- Decentralized Systems and Next-Generation Internet
- Diatoms: Biology and Applications
- Digital Convergence in Engineering Systems
- Emerging Trends in Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- Engineering Systems Design for Sustainable Development
- Fintech in a Sustainable Digital Society
- Industry 5.0 Transformation Applications
- Infectious and Rare Diseases
- Innovations in Materials and Manufacturing
- Leading-Edge Breakthroughs in Artificial Intelligence
- Machine Learning in Biomedical Science and Healthcare Informatics
- Marine Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
- Materials Degradation and Failure
- Mathematics and Computer Science
- Next-Generation Computing and Communication Engineering
- Performability Engineering Series
- Rotating Machinery Fundamentals and Advances
- Semiconductor Devices and Their Applications
- Studies in Computational Intelligence and Smart Technologies
- Sustainable Computing and Optimization
- Thermoplastic Bionanocomposites Series
Browse Subject Areas
For Authors
Submit a ProposalReverse Osmosis 3rd Edition
 | Jane Kucera Copyright: 2023 | Status: Published ISBN: 9781119724742 | Hardcover | 642 pages Price: $225 USD  |
One Line Description
The completely updated 3rd edition is the comprehensive guide to reverse osmosis covering the basics through sustainability and prospects.
Audience
Water and wastewater treatment engineers, consultants, end users, and plant operators
Water and wastewater treatment engineers, consultants, end users, and plant operators
Description
Reverse osmosis (RO) is the world’s leading demineralization technology. It is used to provide clean water for potable and ultrapure uses as well as to treat wastewater for recycle or reuse. Regardless of the application or industry, the basics of RO are the same. This book provides the reader with in-depth knowledge about RO basics for any application.
This third edition is completely updated, still covering the basics of RO but with new insights as to how to optimize performance. Sections of the book cover the history of RO, membrane and transport model development, pretreatment to minimize membrane deposition and damage, effective cleaning and troubleshooting methods, and data collection and analysis. A new section was added that provides detail about RO and water sustainability. Alternative membrane materials and high-recovery RO are some of the topics included in this new section.
Topics are presented in clear and concise language with enough depth to enhance comprehension. The reader will walk away with a new understanding of the topics covered in the book, thereby enabling them to optimize their own RO systems. Engineers and consultants will be able to design or troubleshoot RO systems more effectively. This book is the complete and definitive guide to RO for all persons concerned with RO systems.
Back to Top
Reverse osmosis (RO) is the world’s leading demineralization technology. It is used to provide clean water for potable and ultrapure uses as well as to treat wastewater for recycle or reuse. Regardless of the application or industry, the basics of RO are the same. This book provides the reader with in-depth knowledge about RO basics for any application.
This third edition is completely updated, still covering the basics of RO but with new insights as to how to optimize performance. Sections of the book cover the history of RO, membrane and transport model development, pretreatment to minimize membrane deposition and damage, effective cleaning and troubleshooting methods, and data collection and analysis. A new section was added that provides detail about RO and water sustainability. Alternative membrane materials and high-recovery RO are some of the topics included in this new section.
Topics are presented in clear and concise language with enough depth to enhance comprehension. The reader will walk away with a new understanding of the topics covered in the book, thereby enabling them to optimize their own RO systems. Engineers and consultants will be able to design or troubleshoot RO systems more effectively. This book is the complete and definitive guide to RO for all persons concerned with RO systems.
Back to Top
Author / Editor Details
Jane Kucera is a senior technical consultant with Nalco Water, an Ecolab Company, where she designs water and wastewater use and reuse facilities. With over 40 years of experience, she has an MS in chemical engineering and has authored two books, both with Scrivener Publishing, the first and second editions of Reverse Osmosis, and the first and second editions of Desalination: Water from Water. She is active in the International Water Conference (IWC) and served as the 2023 Conference Chair. She received the 2021 Award of Merit offered by the Engineers’ Society of Western Pennsylvania for her work in the water treatment industry and contributions to the IWC. Jane has a Teaching Credential from the State of California and taught chemistry at Linfield University, Los Angeles Valley College, and Central Oregon Community College.
Jane Kucera is a senior technical consultant with Nalco Water, an Ecolab Company, where she designs water and wastewater use and reuse facilities. With over 40 years of experience, she has an MS in chemical engineering and has authored two books, both with Scrivener Publishing, the first and second editions of Reverse Osmosis, and the first and second editions of Desalination: Water from Water. She is active in the International Water Conference (IWC) and served as the 2023 Conference Chair. She received the 2021 Award of Merit offered by the Engineers’ Society of Western Pennsylvania for her work in the water treatment industry and contributions to the IWC. Jane has a Teaching Credential from the State of California and taught chemistry at Linfield University, Los Angeles Valley College, and Central Oregon Community College.
Back to Top
Table of Contents
Preface to the 3rd Edition
Acknowledgements
Section I: Fundamentals
1. Introduction to Reverse Osmosis: History, Challenges, and Future Directions
1.1 Introduction
1.2 A Brief History of Reverse Osmosis
1.2.1 Early Development
1.2.2 Advances 1970s–1980s
1.2.3 Advances from 1990s through the Early 2000s
1.3 Challenges and Prospects
1.3.1 Membrane Materials Development
1.3.2 Modification of Element Construction for Ultra-High Pressure or High-Temperature Operation
1.3.2.1 Ultra-High Pressure Spiral Wound RO
1.3.2.2 High-Temperature Elements
1.3.3 Optimization of RO Element Feed Channel Spacer
1.3.4 Other Advances and Future Requirements
1.4 Summary
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
2. Principles and Terminology
2.1 Semipermeable Membrane
2.2 Osmosis
2.3 Reverse Osmosis
2.4 Basic Performance Parameters: Recovery, Rejection, and Flux
2.4.1 Recovery and Concentration Factor
2.4.2 Rejection
2.4.3 Flux
2.4.3.1 Water Flux
2.4.3.2 Solute Flux
2.5 Filtration
2.5.1 Dead-End Filtration
2.5.2 Cross-Flow Filtration
2.6 Concentration Polarization
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
3. Membranes: Transport Models, Characterization, and Elements
3.1 Membrane Transport Models
3.1.1 Solution-Diffusion Transport Model
3.1.2 Modified Solution-Diffusion Transport Models
3.1.2.1 Solution-Diffusion Imperfection Model
3.1.2.2 Extended Solution-Diffusion Model
3.1.3 Pore-Based Transport Models
3.1.4 Models Based on Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics
3.2 Polymeric Membranes
3.2.1 Cellulose Acetate
3.2.2 Linear Polyamide (Aramids)
3.2.3 Fully Aromatic Polyamide Composite Membranes
3.2.3.1 NS-100 Membrane
3.2.3.2 FT-30 Composite Membrane
3.2.4 Characterization of CA and Composite Polyamide Membranes
3.2.4.1 Surface Roughness
3.2.4.2 Zeta Potential (Surface Charge)
3.2.4.3 Hydrophilicity
3.2.5 Other Membrane Polymers
3.3 Membrane Elements
3.3.1 Plate and Frame Elements
3.3.2 Tubular Elements
3.3.3 Hollow Fine Fiber Elements
3.3.4 Spiral Wound Elements
3.4 Specialty Membranes and Elements
3.4.1 Specialty Membranes
3.4.1.1 Dry Membranes
3.4.1.2 Boron-Rejecting Membranes
3.4.2 Specialty Elements
3.4.2.1 Sanitary Elements
3.4.2.2 Disc Tube Elements
3.4.2.3 Vibratory Shear Enhanced Processing (VSEP) Elements and System
3.4.2.4 Ultra-High Pressure and High Temperature Elements
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section II: System Design and Engineering
4. Basic Design Arrangements and Concentration Polarization Guidelines
4.1 Arrays and Stages
4.1.1 Recovery per System Array
4.1.2 Element-By-Element Flow and Quality Distribution
4.1.3 Flux Guidelines
4.1.4 Cross-Flow Velocity Guidelines for Array Design
4.1.5 Concentrate Recycle
4.2 Passes
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
5. RO System Design Using Design Software
5.1 RO System Design Guidelines
5.2 Step-by-Step Design—Sample Problem
5.2.1 Step 1—Water Flux
5.2.2 Step 2—Membrane Selection
5.2.3 Step 3—Number of Elements Required
5.2.4 Step 4—System Array
5.3 Design Software
5.3.1 Water Application Value Engine (WAVE)—DuPont Water Solutions
5.3.2 IMSDesign—Hydranautics
5.3.3 Q+ Projection Software LGChem
5.4 Optimum Design Result for the Sample Problem
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
6. Design Considerations
6.1 Feed Water Source and Quality
6.1.1 Feed Water Source
6.1.2 Feed Water Quality and Guidelines
6.1.3 pH
6.1.3.1 pH Profile Through an RO System—Alkalinity Relationships
6.1.3.2 pH and Membrane Scaling Potential
6.1.3.3 pH Effects on Solute Rejection and Water Permeability
6.2 System Operations
6.2.1 Pressure
6.2.2 Compaction
6.2.3 Temperature
6.2.4 Balancing Flows
6.2.5 Designing for Variable Flow Demand
6.3 Existing RO System Design Considerations
6.3.1 Changing Membranes
6.3.1.1 Changing Membrane Area
6.3.1.2 Changing Membrane Types
6.3.1.3 Mixing Membrane Types
6.3.2 Increasing Recovery
6.3.3 Changing Feed Water Sources
6.3.4 Reducing Permeate Flow
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
7. RO Equipment
7.1 Basic RO Skid Components
7.1.1 Cartridge Filters
7.1.2 High Pressure Feed Pump
7.1.3 Pressure Vessels
7.2 Skid Design Considerations
7.2.1 Piping Materials of Construction
7.2.2 Feed Distribution Headers
7.2.3 Stage-by-Stage Cleaning
7.2.4 Sampling and Profiling/Probing Connections
7.2.5 Instrumentation
7.2.6 Controls and Data Acquisition/Analysis
7.2.6.1 System Control
7.2.6.2 Data Acquisition and Analysis
7.2.7 Designs for Variable Permeate Flow Demand
7.3 Energy Recovery Devices (ERDs)
7.3.1 ERD Types
7.3.2 ERD Applications for RO
7.3.2.1 Single-Stage RO
7.3.2.2 Multi-Stage RO
7.4 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Equipment
7.5 Mobile RO Equipment
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section III: Membrane Deposition and Degradation: Causes, Effects, and Mitigation via Pretreatment and Operations
8. Membrane Scaling
8.1 What is Membrane Scale?
8.2 Effects of Scale on Membrane Performance
8.3 Hardness Scales
8.3.1 Types of Hardness Scale
8.3.1.1 Carbonate-Based Hardness Scales
8.3.1.2 Sulfate-Based Hardness Scales
8.3.1.3 Other Calcium Scales: Calcium Phosphate and Calcium Fluoride
8.3.2 Mitigation of Hardness Scales
8.3.2.1 Chemical Pretreatment—Acid and Antiscalant Dosing
8.3.2.2 Non-Chemical Pretreatment—Sodium Softening and Nanofiltration
8.3.2.3 Operational Techniques—Flushing, Reverse Flow, and Closed Circuit Desalination
8.4 Silica Scale
8.4.1 Forms and Reactions of Silica
8.4.2 Factors Affecting Silica Scale Formation
8.4.3 Mitigation of Silica Scale
8.5 Struvite
8.5.1 What is Struvite?
8.5.2 Mitigation of Struvite
8.6 Scaling Mitigation Guidelines—Summary
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
9. Generalized Membrane Fouling
9.1 What is Membrane Fouling?
9.2 Classification and Measurement of Potential Foulants
9.2.1 Settleable and Supra-Colloidal Particulates
9.2.2 Colloids
9.2.2.1 Measurement of Colloids for RO Applications—Silt Density Index (SDI15)
9.2.2.2 Measure of Colloids—Modified Fouling Indices
9.2.2.3 Summary of Colloidal Fouling Indices
9.2.3 Natural Organic Material (NOM)
9.2.4 Other Organics
9.2.5 Other Foulants: Cationic Coagulants and Surfactants, and Silicone-Based Antifoams
9.2.6 Metals: Aluminum, Iron, Manganese, and Sulfur
9.2.6.1 Aluminum
9.2.6.2 Iron and Manganese
9.2.6.3 Hydrogen Sulfide
9.3 Effects of Fouling on Membrane Performance
9.3.1 Effects of Inorganic Foulants
9.3.1.1 Fouling with Larger Settleable and Supra-Colloidal Solids
9.3.1.2 Cake Layer Surface Fouling with Colloids
9.3.1.3 Feed Channel Fouling
9.3.1.4 Summary of Fouling Effects of Inorganic Particulates and Colloids
9.3.2 Effects of NOM and Other Organics
9.3.2.1 Effects of NOM—Humic Acids
9.3.2.2 Effects of Hydrocarbons
9.3.2.3 Effects of Cationic Coagulants and Surfactants
9.3.2.4 Summary of the Effects of Organic Surfactant and Antifoam Fouling on Membrane Performance
9.4 Pretreatment to Minimize Membrane Fouling
9.4.1 Primary Pretreatment—Clarification for Colloids and Organics (NOM) Removal
9.4.1.1 Coagulation
9.4.1.2 Flocculation
9.4.2 Pressure Filtration: Particles, SDI15, and Organics Removal
9.4.2.1 Multimedia Pressure Filters: Suspended Solids Removal
9.4.2.2 Catalytic Filters: Soluble Iron, Manganese, and Hydrogen Sulfide Removal
9.4.2.3 Carbon Filters: TOC Removal
9.4.2.4 Walnut Shell Filters: Hydrocarbon Oil Removal
9.4.2.5 Cartridge Filters: What is Their Purpose?
9.4.3 Membrane Filtration Turbidity, SDI15, and Metal Hydroxide Removal
9.4.3.1 Membrane Materials and Elements
9.4.3.2 Membrane Filtration Operations—Polymeric Membranes
9.4.3.3 Membrane Filtration as Pretreatment for RO
9.4.4 Nanofiltration (NF): Organics and Color Removal
9.5 Feed Water Quality Guidelines to Minimize Membrane Fouling
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
10. RO Membrane Biofouling
10.1 What is RO Membrane Biofouling?
10.2 Factors Affecting Membrane Biofouling
10.2.1 Polyamide RO Membrane Characteristics
10.2.1.1 Membrane Surface Roughness
10.2.1.2 Surface Charge and Zeta Potential
10.2.1.3 Membrane Hydrophilicity
10.2.2 Feed Water Matrix
10.2.2.1 Concentration of Microorganisms and Nutrients
10.2.2.2 Feed Water Ionic Strength and pH
10.2.2.3 Pretreatment Antiscalants
10.2.2.4 Feed Water Organic Concentration and Fouling
10.2.3 RO System Hydrodynamics
10.3 Effects of Biofouling on Membrane Performance
10.3.1 Scale Formation
10.3.2 Hydrodynamic Effects on Performance
10.4 Measurement of Biofouling
10.4.1 Predictive Techniques
10.4.1.1 Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC)
10.4.1.2 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and the Biofilm Formation Rate (BFR)
10.4.2 Plate Counts
10.4.2.1 Heterotrophic Plate Counts (HPC)
10.4.2.2 Total Direct Counts (TDC)
10.5 Mitigation Techniques
10.5.1 Pretreatment
10.5.1.1 Reduction of Feed Water Nutrients and Microorganisms
10.5.2 Disinfection
10.5.2.1 Physiochemical Disinfection Method—Ultraviolet (UV) Light
10.5.2.2 Chemical Disinfection—Oxidizing Biocides
10.5.2.3 Chemical Disinfection—Non-Oxidizing Biocide
10.5.2.4 Biocides Not Recommended for Use with Polyamide RO Membranes
10.5.2.5 Chemical Disinfection—Prospective Biocides for RO
10.5.3 Membrane Cleaning for Biofouling Removal
10.5.4 Membrane “Sterilization”
10.5.5 Biocide Flushing
10.6 Biofouling and Mitigation Summary
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
11. Membrane Degradation
11.1 Chemical Degradation
11.1.1 Polyamide Layer Degradation—Oxidation
11.1.1.1 Chlorine
11.1.1.2 Chloramine
11.1.1.3 Chlorine Dioxide
11.1.2 Polysulfone Support Layer Degradation
11.1.3 Polyester Fabric Degradation—Hydrolysis
11.1.4 Prevention of Chemical Damage
11.1.4.1 Removal of Oxidizers
11.1.4.2 Protection of Membrane Support Layers
11.2 Mechanical Damage
11.2.1 Physical Membrane Damage Due to Abrasion
11.2.2 Physical Membrane Damage Resulting from Operational Factors
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section IV: System Monitoring, Normalization, and Troubleshooting
12. Data Collection and Normalization
12.1 Data Collection
12.2 Data Normalization
Symbols
Subscripts
Nomenclature
References
13. Membrane Issues and Troubleshooting
13.1 Observed Performance Issues
13.1.1 High Permeate Solute Concentration
13.1.1.1 Increase in Feed Water Concentration of Ions
13.1.1.2 Hardness Scaling
13.1.1.3 Membrane Damage
13.1.1.4 Temperature Increase/Pressure Decrease
13.1.1.5 System Operations and Mechanical Issues
13.1.2 Changes in Permeate Flow
13.1.3 Changes in Feed Pressure
13.1.4 High Differential Pressure
13.2 Common Causes of Performance Failures
13.2.1 Mechanical Failures
13.2.2 RO Equipment Design
13.2.3 Operational Problems
13.2.4 Feed Water Quality Issues
13.2.5 Membrane Issues
13.3 Troubleshooting Techniques
13.3.1 Mechanical Inspection
13.3.2 Cartridge Filter Inspection
13.3.3 Water Analyses
13.3.4 RO Projections
13.3.5 Profiling and Probing
13.3.5.1 Profiling
13.3.5.2 Probing
13.3.6 Normalized Data Analysis
13.3.7 Autopsy
13.3.7.1 Visual Inspection—External
13.3.7.2 Visual Inspection—Internal
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section V: Off-Line Activities: Membrane Cleaning, Flushing, and Layup
14. Membrane Cleaning
14.1 When to Clean
14.2 Cleaning Chemicals
14.2.1 High pH Cleaning
14.2.2 Low pH Cleaning
14.3 Cleaning Equipment Design
14.3.1 Design of the RO Skid for Effective Cleaning
14.3.2 Design of the Cleaning Skid
14.3.2.1 Cleaning Tank
14.3.2.2 Cartridge Filters
14.3.2.3 Cleaning Pump
14.4 Cleaning Techniques
14.4.1 Conventional Cleaning
14.4.2 Two-Phase Cleaning
14.4.3 Reverse Cleaning
14.4.4 Preventative Cleaning
14.4.4.1 Extrapolative Preventative Cleaning
14.4.4.2 Direct-Osmosis High-Salinity (DO-HS) On-Line Cleaning Technique
14.5 Determining the Efficacy of Cleaning
14.6 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Versus Offsite Cleaning
14.6.1 CIP
14.6.2 Off-Site Cleaning
14.7 Membrane Disinfection
14.7.1 Hydrogen Peroxide/Peroxyacetic Acid
14.7.2 Non-Oxidizing Biocides
14.7.2.1 DBNPA
14.7.2.2 Isothiazolones—CMIT/MIT
14.7.2.3 Other Non-Oxidizing Biocides
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
15. Controlling Off-Line Membrane Deposition via Flushing and Layup
15.1 Membrane Flushing
15.1.1 End of Service Flush
15.1.2 Stand-By Flush
15.1.3 Return to Service Flush
15.2 Membrane Layup
15.2.1 Short-Term Layup
15.2.2 Long-Term Layup
15.2.2.1 Sodium Metabisulfite (SMBS)
15.2.2.2 DBNPA
15.2.2.3 CMIT/MIT
15.3 Membrane Preservation
Nomenclature
References
Section VI: Sustainability and Future Prospects
16. Concentrate Management
16.1 Discharge
16.1.1 Discharge to Surface Waters
16.1.2 Discharge to Sewer
16.1.3 Discharge to On-Site Treatment Facility
16.1.4 Deep Well Injection
16.2 Land Application
16.2.1 Irrigation
16.2.2 Evaporation Ponds
16.3 Reuse
16.3.1 Direct Reuse
16.3.1.1 Wash Down Systems
16.3.1.2 Cooling Tower Make-Up
16.3.2 Treated Concentrate for Reuse—Brine Minimization
16.3.2.1 Recovery RO Systems
16.3.2.2 Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD)
16.4 Off-Site Disposal
16.5 Emerging Technologies for Concentrate Management
16.5.1 Membrane Distillation (MD)
16.5.2 Forward Osmosis (FO)
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
17. High-Recovery Reverse Osmosis
17.1 Single-Step High Recovery Processes
17.1.1 Closed Circuit RO (CCRO)
17.1.1.1 Managing Scale Formation
17.1.1.2 Managing Membrane Fouling
17.1.1.3 Energy Savings
17.1.2 Osmotically-Assisted RO (OARO)
17.1.3 Pulse Flow RO (PFRO™)
17.1.4 Feed Flow Reversal (FFR)
17.2 Enhanced High Recovery Processes with Interstage Solute Precipitation
17.2.1 Intermediate Concentrate Demineralization (ICD)
17.2.2 Accelerated Seeded Precipitation (ASP)
17.3 Multi-Step High Recovery Membrane Processes
17.3.1 Toward Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD)
17.3.2 Challenging Waters and Wastewaters
17.3.3 Commercialized Multi-Step, High-Recovery RO Processes
17.3.3.1 Optimized Pretreatment and Unique Separation (OPUS®)
17.3.3.2 High Efficiency Reverse Osmosis (HERO®)
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
18. New and Alternative Membrane Materials For Sustainability
18.1 Specific Requirements to Improve Sustainability
18.1.1 Membrane Performance
18.1.2 Fouling Resistance
18.1.3 Chlorine (Oxidant) Tolerance
18.1.4 Energy-Water Nexus
18.2 Membrane Materials to Meet RO Demineralization Challenges
18.2.1 Modification of Polyamide Interfacial Polymerization (IP) Preparation Chemistries and Techniques
18.2.2 Membrane Surface Modifications
18.2.3 Nanotechnology and Nanoparticle Membranes
18.2.3.1 Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Nanocomposite Membranes
18.2.3.2 Thin Film Nanoparticle (TFN) Membranes
18.2.4 Graphene Oxide (GO)-Based Membranes
18.2.5 Biomimetic Aquaporin Membranes
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Index
Back to Top
Preface to the 3rd Edition
Acknowledgements
Section I: Fundamentals
1. Introduction to Reverse Osmosis: History, Challenges, and Future Directions
1.1 Introduction
1.2 A Brief History of Reverse Osmosis
1.2.1 Early Development
1.2.2 Advances 1970s–1980s
1.2.3 Advances from 1990s through the Early 2000s
1.3 Challenges and Prospects
1.3.1 Membrane Materials Development
1.3.2 Modification of Element Construction for Ultra-High Pressure or High-Temperature Operation
1.3.2.1 Ultra-High Pressure Spiral Wound RO
1.3.2.2 High-Temperature Elements
1.3.3 Optimization of RO Element Feed Channel Spacer
1.3.4 Other Advances and Future Requirements
1.4 Summary
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
2. Principles and Terminology
2.1 Semipermeable Membrane
2.2 Osmosis
2.3 Reverse Osmosis
2.4 Basic Performance Parameters: Recovery, Rejection, and Flux
2.4.1 Recovery and Concentration Factor
2.4.2 Rejection
2.4.3 Flux
2.4.3.1 Water Flux
2.4.3.2 Solute Flux
2.5 Filtration
2.5.1 Dead-End Filtration
2.5.2 Cross-Flow Filtration
2.6 Concentration Polarization
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
3. Membranes: Transport Models, Characterization, and Elements
3.1 Membrane Transport Models
3.1.1 Solution-Diffusion Transport Model
3.1.2 Modified Solution-Diffusion Transport Models
3.1.2.1 Solution-Diffusion Imperfection Model
3.1.2.2 Extended Solution-Diffusion Model
3.1.3 Pore-Based Transport Models
3.1.4 Models Based on Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics
3.2 Polymeric Membranes
3.2.1 Cellulose Acetate
3.2.2 Linear Polyamide (Aramids)
3.2.3 Fully Aromatic Polyamide Composite Membranes
3.2.3.1 NS-100 Membrane
3.2.3.2 FT-30 Composite Membrane
3.2.4 Characterization of CA and Composite Polyamide Membranes
3.2.4.1 Surface Roughness
3.2.4.2 Zeta Potential (Surface Charge)
3.2.4.3 Hydrophilicity
3.2.5 Other Membrane Polymers
3.3 Membrane Elements
3.3.1 Plate and Frame Elements
3.3.2 Tubular Elements
3.3.3 Hollow Fine Fiber Elements
3.3.4 Spiral Wound Elements
3.4 Specialty Membranes and Elements
3.4.1 Specialty Membranes
3.4.1.1 Dry Membranes
3.4.1.2 Boron-Rejecting Membranes
3.4.2 Specialty Elements
3.4.2.1 Sanitary Elements
3.4.2.2 Disc Tube Elements
3.4.2.3 Vibratory Shear Enhanced Processing (VSEP) Elements and System
3.4.2.4 Ultra-High Pressure and High Temperature Elements
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section II: System Design and Engineering
4. Basic Design Arrangements and Concentration Polarization Guidelines
4.1 Arrays and Stages
4.1.1 Recovery per System Array
4.1.2 Element-By-Element Flow and Quality Distribution
4.1.3 Flux Guidelines
4.1.4 Cross-Flow Velocity Guidelines for Array Design
4.1.5 Concentrate Recycle
4.2 Passes
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
5. RO System Design Using Design Software
5.1 RO System Design Guidelines
5.2 Step-by-Step Design—Sample Problem
5.2.1 Step 1—Water Flux
5.2.2 Step 2—Membrane Selection
5.2.3 Step 3—Number of Elements Required
5.2.4 Step 4—System Array
5.3 Design Software
5.3.1 Water Application Value Engine (WAVE)—DuPont Water Solutions
5.3.2 IMSDesign—Hydranautics
5.3.3 Q+ Projection Software LGChem
5.4 Optimum Design Result for the Sample Problem
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
6. Design Considerations
6.1 Feed Water Source and Quality
6.1.1 Feed Water Source
6.1.2 Feed Water Quality and Guidelines
6.1.3 pH
6.1.3.1 pH Profile Through an RO System—Alkalinity Relationships
6.1.3.2 pH and Membrane Scaling Potential
6.1.3.3 pH Effects on Solute Rejection and Water Permeability
6.2 System Operations
6.2.1 Pressure
6.2.2 Compaction
6.2.3 Temperature
6.2.4 Balancing Flows
6.2.5 Designing for Variable Flow Demand
6.3 Existing RO System Design Considerations
6.3.1 Changing Membranes
6.3.1.1 Changing Membrane Area
6.3.1.2 Changing Membrane Types
6.3.1.3 Mixing Membrane Types
6.3.2 Increasing Recovery
6.3.3 Changing Feed Water Sources
6.3.4 Reducing Permeate Flow
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
7. RO Equipment
7.1 Basic RO Skid Components
7.1.1 Cartridge Filters
7.1.2 High Pressure Feed Pump
7.1.3 Pressure Vessels
7.2 Skid Design Considerations
7.2.1 Piping Materials of Construction
7.2.2 Feed Distribution Headers
7.2.3 Stage-by-Stage Cleaning
7.2.4 Sampling and Profiling/Probing Connections
7.2.5 Instrumentation
7.2.6 Controls and Data Acquisition/Analysis
7.2.6.1 System Control
7.2.6.2 Data Acquisition and Analysis
7.2.7 Designs for Variable Permeate Flow Demand
7.3 Energy Recovery Devices (ERDs)
7.3.1 ERD Types
7.3.2 ERD Applications for RO
7.3.2.1 Single-Stage RO
7.3.2.2 Multi-Stage RO
7.4 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Equipment
7.5 Mobile RO Equipment
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section III: Membrane Deposition and Degradation: Causes, Effects, and Mitigation via Pretreatment and Operations
8. Membrane Scaling
8.1 What is Membrane Scale?
8.2 Effects of Scale on Membrane Performance
8.3 Hardness Scales
8.3.1 Types of Hardness Scale
8.3.1.1 Carbonate-Based Hardness Scales
8.3.1.2 Sulfate-Based Hardness Scales
8.3.1.3 Other Calcium Scales: Calcium Phosphate and Calcium Fluoride
8.3.2 Mitigation of Hardness Scales
8.3.2.1 Chemical Pretreatment—Acid and Antiscalant Dosing
8.3.2.2 Non-Chemical Pretreatment—Sodium Softening and Nanofiltration
8.3.2.3 Operational Techniques—Flushing, Reverse Flow, and Closed Circuit Desalination
8.4 Silica Scale
8.4.1 Forms and Reactions of Silica
8.4.2 Factors Affecting Silica Scale Formation
8.4.3 Mitigation of Silica Scale
8.5 Struvite
8.5.1 What is Struvite?
8.5.2 Mitigation of Struvite
8.6 Scaling Mitigation Guidelines—Summary
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
9. Generalized Membrane Fouling
9.1 What is Membrane Fouling?
9.2 Classification and Measurement of Potential Foulants
9.2.1 Settleable and Supra-Colloidal Particulates
9.2.2 Colloids
9.2.2.1 Measurement of Colloids for RO Applications—Silt Density Index (SDI15)
9.2.2.2 Measure of Colloids—Modified Fouling Indices
9.2.2.3 Summary of Colloidal Fouling Indices
9.2.3 Natural Organic Material (NOM)
9.2.4 Other Organics
9.2.5 Other Foulants: Cationic Coagulants and Surfactants, and Silicone-Based Antifoams
9.2.6 Metals: Aluminum, Iron, Manganese, and Sulfur
9.2.6.1 Aluminum
9.2.6.2 Iron and Manganese
9.2.6.3 Hydrogen Sulfide
9.3 Effects of Fouling on Membrane Performance
9.3.1 Effects of Inorganic Foulants
9.3.1.1 Fouling with Larger Settleable and Supra-Colloidal Solids
9.3.1.2 Cake Layer Surface Fouling with Colloids
9.3.1.3 Feed Channel Fouling
9.3.1.4 Summary of Fouling Effects of Inorganic Particulates and Colloids
9.3.2 Effects of NOM and Other Organics
9.3.2.1 Effects of NOM—Humic Acids
9.3.2.2 Effects of Hydrocarbons
9.3.2.3 Effects of Cationic Coagulants and Surfactants
9.3.2.4 Summary of the Effects of Organic Surfactant and Antifoam Fouling on Membrane Performance
9.4 Pretreatment to Minimize Membrane Fouling
9.4.1 Primary Pretreatment—Clarification for Colloids and Organics (NOM) Removal
9.4.1.1 Coagulation
9.4.1.2 Flocculation
9.4.2 Pressure Filtration: Particles, SDI15, and Organics Removal
9.4.2.1 Multimedia Pressure Filters: Suspended Solids Removal
9.4.2.2 Catalytic Filters: Soluble Iron, Manganese, and Hydrogen Sulfide Removal
9.4.2.3 Carbon Filters: TOC Removal
9.4.2.4 Walnut Shell Filters: Hydrocarbon Oil Removal
9.4.2.5 Cartridge Filters: What is Their Purpose?
9.4.3 Membrane Filtration Turbidity, SDI15, and Metal Hydroxide Removal
9.4.3.1 Membrane Materials and Elements
9.4.3.2 Membrane Filtration Operations—Polymeric Membranes
9.4.3.3 Membrane Filtration as Pretreatment for RO
9.4.4 Nanofiltration (NF): Organics and Color Removal
9.5 Feed Water Quality Guidelines to Minimize Membrane Fouling
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
10. RO Membrane Biofouling
10.1 What is RO Membrane Biofouling?
10.2 Factors Affecting Membrane Biofouling
10.2.1 Polyamide RO Membrane Characteristics
10.2.1.1 Membrane Surface Roughness
10.2.1.2 Surface Charge and Zeta Potential
10.2.1.3 Membrane Hydrophilicity
10.2.2 Feed Water Matrix
10.2.2.1 Concentration of Microorganisms and Nutrients
10.2.2.2 Feed Water Ionic Strength and pH
10.2.2.3 Pretreatment Antiscalants
10.2.2.4 Feed Water Organic Concentration and Fouling
10.2.3 RO System Hydrodynamics
10.3 Effects of Biofouling on Membrane Performance
10.3.1 Scale Formation
10.3.2 Hydrodynamic Effects on Performance
10.4 Measurement of Biofouling
10.4.1 Predictive Techniques
10.4.1.1 Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC)
10.4.1.2 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and the Biofilm Formation Rate (BFR)
10.4.2 Plate Counts
10.4.2.1 Heterotrophic Plate Counts (HPC)
10.4.2.2 Total Direct Counts (TDC)
10.5 Mitigation Techniques
10.5.1 Pretreatment
10.5.1.1 Reduction of Feed Water Nutrients and Microorganisms
10.5.2 Disinfection
10.5.2.1 Physiochemical Disinfection Method—Ultraviolet (UV) Light
10.5.2.2 Chemical Disinfection—Oxidizing Biocides
10.5.2.3 Chemical Disinfection—Non-Oxidizing Biocide
10.5.2.4 Biocides Not Recommended for Use with Polyamide RO Membranes
10.5.2.5 Chemical Disinfection—Prospective Biocides for RO
10.5.3 Membrane Cleaning for Biofouling Removal
10.5.4 Membrane “Sterilization”
10.5.5 Biocide Flushing
10.6 Biofouling and Mitigation Summary
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
11. Membrane Degradation
11.1 Chemical Degradation
11.1.1 Polyamide Layer Degradation—Oxidation
11.1.1.1 Chlorine
11.1.1.2 Chloramine
11.1.1.3 Chlorine Dioxide
11.1.2 Polysulfone Support Layer Degradation
11.1.3 Polyester Fabric Degradation—Hydrolysis
11.1.4 Prevention of Chemical Damage
11.1.4.1 Removal of Oxidizers
11.1.4.2 Protection of Membrane Support Layers
11.2 Mechanical Damage
11.2.1 Physical Membrane Damage Due to Abrasion
11.2.2 Physical Membrane Damage Resulting from Operational Factors
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section IV: System Monitoring, Normalization, and Troubleshooting
12. Data Collection and Normalization
12.1 Data Collection
12.2 Data Normalization
Symbols
Subscripts
Nomenclature
References
13. Membrane Issues and Troubleshooting
13.1 Observed Performance Issues
13.1.1 High Permeate Solute Concentration
13.1.1.1 Increase in Feed Water Concentration of Ions
13.1.1.2 Hardness Scaling
13.1.1.3 Membrane Damage
13.1.1.4 Temperature Increase/Pressure Decrease
13.1.1.5 System Operations and Mechanical Issues
13.1.2 Changes in Permeate Flow
13.1.3 Changes in Feed Pressure
13.1.4 High Differential Pressure
13.2 Common Causes of Performance Failures
13.2.1 Mechanical Failures
13.2.2 RO Equipment Design
13.2.3 Operational Problems
13.2.4 Feed Water Quality Issues
13.2.5 Membrane Issues
13.3 Troubleshooting Techniques
13.3.1 Mechanical Inspection
13.3.2 Cartridge Filter Inspection
13.3.3 Water Analyses
13.3.4 RO Projections
13.3.5 Profiling and Probing
13.3.5.1 Profiling
13.3.5.2 Probing
13.3.6 Normalized Data Analysis
13.3.7 Autopsy
13.3.7.1 Visual Inspection—External
13.3.7.2 Visual Inspection—Internal
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section V: Off-Line Activities: Membrane Cleaning, Flushing, and Layup
14. Membrane Cleaning
14.1 When to Clean
14.2 Cleaning Chemicals
14.2.1 High pH Cleaning
14.2.2 Low pH Cleaning
14.3 Cleaning Equipment Design
14.3.1 Design of the RO Skid for Effective Cleaning
14.3.2 Design of the Cleaning Skid
14.3.2.1 Cleaning Tank
14.3.2.2 Cartridge Filters
14.3.2.3 Cleaning Pump
14.4 Cleaning Techniques
14.4.1 Conventional Cleaning
14.4.2 Two-Phase Cleaning
14.4.3 Reverse Cleaning
14.4.4 Preventative Cleaning
14.4.4.1 Extrapolative Preventative Cleaning
14.4.4.2 Direct-Osmosis High-Salinity (DO-HS) On-Line Cleaning Technique
14.5 Determining the Efficacy of Cleaning
14.6 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Versus Offsite Cleaning
14.6.1 CIP
14.6.2 Off-Site Cleaning
14.7 Membrane Disinfection
14.7.1 Hydrogen Peroxide/Peroxyacetic Acid
14.7.2 Non-Oxidizing Biocides
14.7.2.1 DBNPA
14.7.2.2 Isothiazolones—CMIT/MIT
14.7.2.3 Other Non-Oxidizing Biocides
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
15. Controlling Off-Line Membrane Deposition via Flushing and Layup
15.1 Membrane Flushing
15.1.1 End of Service Flush
15.1.2 Stand-By Flush
15.1.3 Return to Service Flush
15.2 Membrane Layup
15.2.1 Short-Term Layup
15.2.2 Long-Term Layup
15.2.2.1 Sodium Metabisulfite (SMBS)
15.2.2.2 DBNPA
15.2.2.3 CMIT/MIT
15.3 Membrane Preservation
Nomenclature
References
Section VI: Sustainability and Future Prospects
16. Concentrate Management
16.1 Discharge
16.1.1 Discharge to Surface Waters
16.1.2 Discharge to Sewer
16.1.3 Discharge to On-Site Treatment Facility
16.1.4 Deep Well Injection
16.2 Land Application
16.2.1 Irrigation
16.2.2 Evaporation Ponds
16.3 Reuse
16.3.1 Direct Reuse
16.3.1.1 Wash Down Systems
16.3.1.2 Cooling Tower Make-Up
16.3.2 Treated Concentrate for Reuse—Brine Minimization
16.3.2.1 Recovery RO Systems
16.3.2.2 Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD)
16.4 Off-Site Disposal
16.5 Emerging Technologies for Concentrate Management
16.5.1 Membrane Distillation (MD)
16.5.2 Forward Osmosis (FO)
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
17. High-Recovery Reverse Osmosis
17.1 Single-Step High Recovery Processes
17.1.1 Closed Circuit RO (CCRO)
17.1.1.1 Managing Scale Formation
17.1.1.2 Managing Membrane Fouling
17.1.1.3 Energy Savings
17.1.2 Osmotically-Assisted RO (OARO)
17.1.3 Pulse Flow RO (PFRO™)
17.1.4 Feed Flow Reversal (FFR)
17.2 Enhanced High Recovery Processes with Interstage Solute Precipitation
17.2.1 Intermediate Concentrate Demineralization (ICD)
17.2.2 Accelerated Seeded Precipitation (ASP)
17.3 Multi-Step High Recovery Membrane Processes
17.3.1 Toward Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD)
17.3.2 Challenging Waters and Wastewaters
17.3.3 Commercialized Multi-Step, High-Recovery RO Processes
17.3.3.1 Optimized Pretreatment and Unique Separation (OPUS®)
17.3.3.2 High Efficiency Reverse Osmosis (HERO®)
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
18. New and Alternative Membrane Materials For Sustainability
18.1 Specific Requirements to Improve Sustainability
18.1.1 Membrane Performance
18.1.2 Fouling Resistance
18.1.3 Chlorine (Oxidant) Tolerance
18.1.4 Energy-Water Nexus
18.2 Membrane Materials to Meet RO Demineralization Challenges
18.2.1 Modification of Polyamide Interfacial Polymerization (IP) Preparation Chemistries and Techniques
18.2.2 Membrane Surface Modifications
18.2.3 Nanotechnology and Nanoparticle Membranes
18.2.3.1 Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Nanocomposite Membranes
18.2.3.2 Thin Film Nanoparticle (TFN) Membranes
18.2.4 Graphene Oxide (GO)-Based Membranes
18.2.5 Biomimetic Aquaporin Membranes
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Index
Back to Top