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Submit a ProposalPetroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook Volume 5
 | Pressure Relieving Devices, Process Safety and Energy Management, Petroleum Product Blending, Economic Evaluation, and Sustainability By A. Kayode Coker Copyright: 2023 | Status: Published ISBN: 9781394206988 | Hardcover | 861 pages Price: $225 USD  |
One Line Description
The fifth volume of a multi-volume set of the most comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of the advances of petroleum refining designs and applications, written by one of the world’s most well-known process engineers, this is a must-have for any chemical, process, or petroleum engineer.
Audience
Petroleum, chemical, and process engineers, petroleum and chemical engineering students, engineers and technicians working in petroleum refining, other engineers and technicians in the oil and gas industry, and engineers working towards Professional Engineering qualifications
Petroleum, chemical, and process engineers, petroleum and chemical engineering students, engineers and technicians working in petroleum refining, other engineers and technicians in the oil and gas industry, and engineers working towards Professional Engineering qualifications
Description
This fifth and final volume in the “Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook” set, this book continues the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student.
Besides the list below, this groundbreaking new volume describes blending of products from the refinery, applying the ternary diagrams and classifications of crude oils, flash point blending, pour point blending, aniline point blending, smoke point and viscosity blending, cetane and diesel indices. The volume further reviews refinery operational cost, cost allocation of actual usage, project and economic evaluation involving cost estimation, cash flow involving return on investment, net present values, discounted cash flow rate of return, net present values, payback period, inflation and sensitivity analysis, and so on. It reviews global effects on the refining economy, carbon tax, carbon foot print, global warming potential, carbon dioxide equivalent, carbon credit, carbon offset, carbon price, and so on. It reviews sustainability in petroleum refining and alternative fuels (biofuels and so on), impact of the overall greenhouse effects, carbon capture and storage in refineries, process intensification in biodiesel, biofuel from green diesel, acid-gas removal and emerging technologies, carbon capture and storage, gas heated reformer unit, pressure swing adsorption process, steam methane reforming for fuel cells, grey, blue and green hydrogen production, new technologies for carbon capture and storage, carbon clean process design, refinery of the future, refining and petrochemical industry characteristics.
Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world’s foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area.
Back to Top
This fifth and final volume in the “Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook” set, this book continues the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student.
Besides the list below, this groundbreaking new volume describes blending of products from the refinery, applying the ternary diagrams and classifications of crude oils, flash point blending, pour point blending, aniline point blending, smoke point and viscosity blending, cetane and diesel indices. The volume further reviews refinery operational cost, cost allocation of actual usage, project and economic evaluation involving cost estimation, cash flow involving return on investment, net present values, discounted cash flow rate of return, net present values, payback period, inflation and sensitivity analysis, and so on. It reviews global effects on the refining economy, carbon tax, carbon foot print, global warming potential, carbon dioxide equivalent, carbon credit, carbon offset, carbon price, and so on. It reviews sustainability in petroleum refining and alternative fuels (biofuels and so on), impact of the overall greenhouse effects, carbon capture and storage in refineries, process intensification in biodiesel, biofuel from green diesel, acid-gas removal and emerging technologies, carbon capture and storage, gas heated reformer unit, pressure swing adsorption process, steam methane reforming for fuel cells, grey, blue and green hydrogen production, new technologies for carbon capture and storage, carbon clean process design, refinery of the future, refining and petrochemical industry characteristics.
Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world’s foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area.
Back to Top
Author / Editor Details
A. Kayode Coker PhD, is Engineering Consultant for AKC Technology, an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Wolverhampton, U.K., a former Engineering Coordinator at Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company (SASREF) and Chairman of the department of Chemical Engineering Technology at Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia. He has been a chartered chemical engineer for more than 30 years. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, U.K. (C. Eng., FIChemE), and a senior member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE). He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in Process Analysis and Development and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, U.K., and a Teacher’s Certificate in Education at the University of London, U.K. He has directed and conducted short courses extensively throughout the world and has been a lecturer at the university level. His articles have been published in several international journals. He is an author of six books in chemical engineering, a contributor to the Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, Vol 61 and a certified train - the mentor trainer. A Technical Report Assessor and Interviewer for chartered chemical engineers (IChemE) in the U.K. He is a member of the International Biographical Centre in Cambridge, U.K. (IBC) as Leading Engineers of the World for 2008. Also, he is a member of International Who’s Who of ProfessionalsTM and Madison Who’s Who in the U.S.
A. Kayode Coker PhD, is Engineering Consultant for AKC Technology, an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Wolverhampton, U.K., a former Engineering Coordinator at Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company (SASREF) and Chairman of the department of Chemical Engineering Technology at Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia. He has been a chartered chemical engineer for more than 30 years. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, U.K. (C. Eng., FIChemE), and a senior member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE). He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in Process Analysis and Development and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, U.K., and a Teacher’s Certificate in Education at the University of London, U.K. He has directed and conducted short courses extensively throughout the world and has been a lecturer at the university level. His articles have been published in several international journals. He is an author of six books in chemical engineering, a contributor to the Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, Vol 61 and a certified train - the mentor trainer. A Technical Report Assessor and Interviewer for chartered chemical engineers (IChemE) in the U.K. He is a member of the International Biographical Centre in Cambridge, U.K. (IBC) as Leading Engineers of the World for 2008. Also, he is a member of International Who’s Who of ProfessionalsTM and Madison Who’s Who in the U.S.
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Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
23. Pressure Relieving Devices and Emergency Relief System Design
23.0 Introduction
23.1 Types of Positive Pressure Relieving Devices (See Manufacturers’ Catalogs for Design Details)
23.2 Types of Valves/Relief Devices
Conventional Safety Relief Valve
Balanced Safety Relief Valve
Special Valves
Rupture Disk
Example 23.1
23.3 Materials of Construction
Safety and Relief Valves: Pressure-Vacuum Relief Values
Rupture Disks
23.4 General Code Requirements [1]
23.5 Relief Mechanisms
Reclosing Devices, Spring Loaded
Non-Reclosing Pressure Relieving Devices
23.6 Pressure Settings and Design Basis
23.7 Unfired Pressure Vessels Only, But Not Fired or Unfired Steam Boilers
Non-Fire Exposure
External Fire or Heat Exposure Only and Process Relief
23.8 Relieving Capacity of Combinations of Safety Relief Valves and Rupture Disks or Non-Reclosure Devices (Reference ASME Code, Par. UG-127, U-132)
Primary Relief
Rupture Disk Devices, [44] Par UG-127
Footnotes to ASME Code
23.9 Establishing Relieving or Set Pressures
Safety and Safety Relief Valves for Steam Service
23.10 Selection and Application
Causes of System Overpressure
23.11 Capacity Requirements Evaluation for Process Operation (Non-Fire)
Installation
23.12 Piping Design
Pressure Drops
Line Sizing
23.13 Selection Features: Safety, Safety-Relief Valves, and Rupture Disks
Calculations of Relieving Areas: Safety and Relief Valves
23.15 Standard Pressure Relief Valves Relief Area Discharge Openings
23.16 Sizing Safety Relief Type Devices for Required Flow Area at Time of Relief
23.17 Effects of Two-Phase Vapor-Liquid Mixture on Relief Valve Capacity
23.18 Sizing for Gases or Vapors or Liquids for Conventional Valves with Constant Backpressure Only
Procedure
Establish Critical Flow for Gases and Vapors
Example 23.2: Flow through Sharp Edged Vent Orifice (Adapted after [41])
23.19 Orifice Area Calculations [42]
23.20 Sizing Valves for Liquid Relief: Pressure-Relief Valves Requiring Capacity Certification [5D]
23.21 Sizing Valves For Liquid Relief: Pressure Relief Valves Not Requiring Capacity Certification [5D]
23.22 Reaction Forces
Example 23.3
Solution
Example 23.4
Solution
23.23 Calculations of Orifice Flow Area using Pressure Relieving Balanced Bellows Valves, with Variable or Constant Backpressure
23.24 Sizing Valves for Liquid Expansion (Hydraulic Expansion of Liquid Filled Systems/Equipment/Piping)
23.25 Sizing Valves for Subcritical Flow: Gas or Vapor But Not Steam [5d]
23.26 Emergency Pressure Relief: Fires and Explosions Rupture Disks
23.27 External Fires
23.28 Set Pressures for External Fires
23.29 Heat Absorbed
The Severe Case
23.30 Surface Area Exposed to Fire
23.31 Relief Capacity for Fire Exposure
23.32 Code Requirements for External Fire Conditions
23.33 Design Procedure
Example 23.5
Solution
23.34 Pressure Relief Valve Orifice Areas on Vessels Containing Only Gas, Unwetted Surface
23.35 Rupture Disk Sizing Design and Specification
23.36 Specifications to Manufacturer
23.37 Size Selection
23.38 Calculation of Relieving Areas: Rupture Disks for Non-Explosive Service
23.39 The Manufacturing Range (MR)
23.40 Selection of Burst Pressure for Disk, Pb (Table 23.3)
Example 23.6 Rupture Disk Selection
23.41 Effects of Temperature on Disk
23.42 Rupture Disk Assembly Pressure Drop
23.43 Gases and Vapors: Rupture Disks [5a, Par, 4.8]
Volumetric Flow: scfm Standard Conditions (1.4.7 psia and 60°F)
Steam: Rupture Disk Sonic Flow; Critical Pressure = 0.55 and P2/P1 is Less Than Critical Pressure Ratio of 0.55
23.44 API for Subsonic Flow: Gas or Vapor (Not Steam)
Liquids: Rupture Disk
23.46 Sizing for Combination of Rupture Disk and Pressure Relief Valve in Series Combination
Example 23.7: Safety Relief Valve for Process Overpressure
Example 23.8: Rupture Disk External Fire Condition
Solution
Heat Input
Total Heat Input (from Figure 23.30a)
Quantity of Vapor Released
Critical Flow Pressure
Disk Area
Example 23.9: Rupture Disk for Vapors or Gases; Non-Fire Condition
Solution
Example 23.10: Liquids Rupture Disk
Example 23.11: Liquid Overpressure, Figure 23.34
23.47 Pressure-Vacuum Relief for Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
23.48 Basic Venting For Low-Pressure Storage Vessels
23.49 Non-Refrigerated Above Ground Tanks; API-Std. 2000
23.50 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVEs)
23.51 Managing Runaway Reactions
Hydroprocessing Units
Acid/Base Reactions
Methanation
Alkylation Unit Acid Runaway
23.51.1 Runaway Reactions: DIERS
23.52 Hazard Evaluation in the Chemical Process Industries
23.53 Hazard Assessment Procedures
Exotherms
Accumulation
23.54 Thermal Runaway Chemical Reaction Hazards
Heat Consumed Heating the Vessel. The f-Factor
Onset Temperature
Time-To-Maximum Rate
Maximum Reaction Temperature
Vent Sizing Package (VSP)
Vent Sizing Package 2TM (VSP2TM)
Advanced Reactive System Screening Tool (ARSST)
23.55 Two-Phase Flow Relief Sizing for Runaway Reaction
Runaway Reactions
Vapor Pressure Systems
Gassy Systems
Hybrid Systems
Simplified Nomograph Method
Vent Sizing Methods
Vapor Pressure Systems
Fauske’s Method
Gassy Systems
Homogeneous Two-Phase Venting Until Disengagement
Two-Phase Flow Through an Orifice
Conditions of Use
23.56 Discharge System
Design of The Vent Pipe
Safe Discharge
Direct Discharge to The Atmosphere
Example 23.12
Tempered Reaction
Solution
Example 23.13
Solution
Example 23.14
Solution
Example 23.15
Solution
DIERS Final Reports
23.57 Sizing for Two-Phase Fluids
Example 23.16
Solution
Example 23.17
Solution
Example 23.18
Example 23.19
Solution
Type 3 Integral Method [5]
Example 23.20 [76]
Solution
23.58 Flares/Flare Stacks
Flares
Sizing
Flame Length [5c]
Flame Distortion [5c] Caused by Wind Velocity
Flare Stack Height
Flaring Toxic Gases
Purging of Flare Stacks and Vessels/Piping
Pressure Purging
Example 23.21: Purge Vessel by Pressurization Following the Method of [41]
23.59 Compressible Flow for Discharge Piping
Design Equations for Compressible Fluid Flow for Discharge Piping
Critical Pressure, Pcrit.
Compressibility Factor Z
Friction factor, f
Discharge Line Sizing
23.60 Vent Piping
Discharge Reactive Force
Codes and Standards
Discharge Locations
Example 23.22
Solution
Example 23.23: Flare and Relief Blowdon System
Solution
A Rapid Solution for Sizing Depressuring Lines [5c]
Process Safety Incidents with Relief Valve Failures and Flarestacks
A Case Study on Williams Geismar Olefins Plant, Geismar, Louisiana [95]
Process Flow of the Olefins
The Incident
Technical Analysis
Key Lessons
Explosions in Flarestacks
Relief Valves
Location
Relief Valve Registers
Relief Valve Faults [92]
Tailpipes [92]
GLOSSARY
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Nomenclature
Subscripts
Greek Symbols
References
World Wide Web on Two-Phase Relief System
24. Process Safety and Energy Management in Petroleum Refinery
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Process Safety
24.2.1 Process Safety Information
24.2.2 Conduct of Operations (COO) and Operational Discipline (OD)
Process Safety Culture: BP Refinery Explosion, Texas City, 2005
Detailed Description
Causes
Key Lessons
Process Safety Culture
Selected CSB Findings
Selected Baker Panel Finding
Process Knowledge Management
Training and Performance Assurance
Management of Change (MOC)
Asset Integrity and Reliability
24.2.3 Process Hazard Analysis
Safe Operating Limits
Impact on Other Process Safety Elements
24.3 General Process Safety Hazards in a Refinery
Desalters
Critical Operating Parameters Impacting Process Safety
The Quality of Aqueous Effluent from Desalters
Desalter Water Supply
Vibration within Relief Valve (RV) Pipework
Example of Process Safety Incidents and Hazards
Hydrotreating [2]
24.4 Example of Process Safety Incidents and Hazards
Catalytic Cracking [2]
24.5 Process Safety Hazards
Reforming
Alkylation [2]
Hydrotreating Units
24.5.1 Examples of Process Safety Incidents and Hazards
HF release, Texas City, TX, 1987 [2]
HF release, Corpus Christi, TX, 2009
HF release at Philadelphia Energy Solutions Refining and Marketing LLC (PES),
Philadelphia 2019
Post-Incident Activities
Coking [2]
Equilon Anacortes Refinery Coking Plant Accident, 1998
Design Considerations
24.6 Hazards Relating to Equipment Failure
24.7 Columns and Other Process Pressure Vessels and Piping
Corrosion
Corrosion Inhibitors
24.8 Inadequate Design and Construction
Corrosion within “dead legs”
24.9 Inadequate Material of Construction Specification
24.10 Material Failures and Process Safety Prevention Programs
Piping Repair Incident at Tosco Avon Refinery, CA, USA
Lessons Learned from this accident
24.11 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)
Study Co-ordination
24.11.1 HAZOP Documentation Requirements
24.11.2 The Basic Concept of HAZOP
24.11.3 Division into Sections
Use of Guidewords
24.11.4 Conducting a HAZOP Study
Define Objective and Scope
Prepare for the Study
Record the Results
24.11.5 Hazop Case Study [8]
24.11.6 HAZOP of a Batch Process
Limitations of HAZOP Studies
Conclusions
24.12 HAZAN
24.13 Fault Tree Analysis
24.14 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
Methodology of FMEA
Definition of System to be Evaluated
Level of Analysis
Analysis of Failures
24.15 The Swiss Cheese Model
24.16 Bowtie Analysis
Validity Rules for Barriers
Example
Process Safety Isolation Practices in Petroleum Refinery and Chemical Process Industries
24.17 Inherently Safer Plant Design
Inherently Safer Plant Design in Reactor Systems
24.18 Energy Management in Petroleum Refinery
Total cost of energy
Energy Policy
Crude Distillation Unit
Heat Exchangers
Steam Traps
Optimization of Refinery Steam/Power System
Reducing fouling/surface cleaning/surface coating in heat exchanger/furnace
Pumping System
Electric Drives
Furnace System
Compressed Air
Flare System
24.18.1 Environmental Impact of Flaring
24.18.2 Environmental Impact of Petroleum Industry
24.18.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
24.18.4 Pollution Control Strategies in Petroleum Refinery
24.18.5 Energy Management and Co2 Emissions in Refinery
24.19 Benchmarking in Refinery
Glossary
Acronyms and Abbreviations
References
25. Product Blending
25.0 Introduction
25.1 Blending Processes
25.1.1 Gasoline Blending
25.2 Ternary Diagram of Crude Oils
25.2.1 Elemental Analysis and Ternary Classification of Crude Oils
25.2.2 Reading a Ternary Diagram
Solution
Example 25.1
Solution
Solution
Example 25.2
Solution
25.3 Reid Vapor Pressure Blending
Example 25.4
Solution
Example 25.5
Solution
Example 25.6
25.3.1 Reid Vapor Pressure Blending for Gasolines and Naphthas
Example 25.7
Solution
25.4 Flash Point Blending
Example 25.8
Solution
25.5 Alternative Methods for Determining the Blend Flash Point
Example 25.9
Solution
Example
Example 25.10
Solution
Example 25.11
25.6 Pour Point Blending
Example 25.12
Solution
Example 25.13 [2]
Solution
Example 25.14 [3]
Example 25.15
25.7 Cloud Point Blending
Example 25.16
Solution
25.8 Aniline Point Blending
Example 25.17
Solution
25.8.1 Alternative Aniline Point Blending
Example 25.18
Solution
25.9 Smoke Point Blending
Example 25.19
Solution
25.9.1 Smoke Point of Kerosenes
25.10 Viscosity Blending
Example 25.20
Solution
25.11 Regular Gasoline
25.12 Product Blending
25.12.1 Premium Gasoline
25.13 Viscosity Prediction From the Crude Assay
25.14 Gasoline Octane Number Blending
Example 25.21
Solution
Example 25.32
Solution
Example 25.23
Solution
25.15 Other Blending Correlations
Cetane Index
Diesel Index
U.S. Bureau of Mines Correlation Index (BMCI)
Aromaticity Factor
25.16 Fluidity of Residual Fuel Oils
25.16.1 Fluidity Test
25.16.2 Fluidity Blending
Example 25.24
Solution
25.17 Conversion of Kinematic Viscosity to Saybolt Universal
Viscosity or Saybolt Furol Viscosity
25.17.1 Conversion to Saybolt Universal Viscosity
Example 25.25
Solution
25.17.2 Conversion to Saybolt Furol Viscosity
Example 25.26
Solution
25.17.3 Refractive Index of Petroleum Fractions
Example 25.27
Solution
25.18 Determination of Molecular-Type Composition
Example 25.28
Solution
Example 25.29
Solution
25.19 Determination of Viscosity From Viscosity/Temperature Data at Two Points
Example 25.30
Solution
25.20 Linear Programming (LP) for Blending
LP Software
The Excel Solver
25.20.1 Mathematical Formulation
25.20.2 Problem Solution
Notation
Example 25.31
Solution
Example 25.32
Solution
Example 25.33
Solution
Example 25.34
Solution
Example 25.35
Solution
Example 25.36
Solution
A Case Study
Solution
25.21 Environmental Concern of Gasoline Blending
25.21.1 Operation of Catalytic Converter
25.21.2 Effectiveness of Catalytic Converters
References
Bibliography
26. Cost Estimation and Economic Evaluation
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Refinery Operating Cost
26.2.1 Theoretical Sales Realization Valuation Method
Example 26.1
26.2.2 Cost Allocation for Actual Usage
26.3 Capital Cost Estimation
26.4 Equipment Cost Estimations by Capacity Ratio Exponents
26.5 Yearly Cost Indices
Example 26.2
Solution
Example 26.3
Solution
26.6 Factored Cost Estimate
26.7 Detailed Factorial Cost Estimates
Zevnik and Buchanan’s Method
Timm’s Method
Bridgwater’s Method
26.8 Bare Module Cost for Equipment
26.9 Summary of the Factorial Method
26.10 Computer Cost Estimating
26.11 Project Evaluation
Introduction
26.12 Cash Flows
Return on Investment (ROI)
Accounting Coordination
Payback Period (PBP)
Example 26.5
Present Worth (or Present Value)
Net Present Value (NPV)
The Profitability Index (PI)
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)
Example 26.6
Relationship between PBP and DCFRR
Example 26.7
Solution
Example 26.8
Solution
26.12.1 Incremental Criteria
Depreciation
26.12.2 Profitability
Example 26.9
Solution
Example 26.10
Solution
Economic Analysis
Example 26.11
Solution
26.12.3 Inflation
26.12.4 Sensitivity Analysis
26.13 Refining Economics
Crude Slates
Refinery Configuration
Product Slates
Refinery Utilization
Environmental Initiatives
26.13.1 Refinery Margin Definitions
Example 26.12
Solution
Example 26.13
26.13.2 Refinery Complexity
Example 26.14
Solution
26.13.3 Supply and Demand Balance
Product Quality
Standard Density
Blending Components
Constraining Properties
Quality Premiums/Discounts
A Case Study [44]
Problem Statement
Process Description
Catalytic Reformer
Naphtha Desulfurizer
Summary of Investment and Utilities Costs
Calculation of Direct Annual Operating Costs
On-Stream Time
Water Makeup
Power
Fuel
Royalties
Catalyst Consumption
Insurance
Local Taxes
Maintenance
Miscellaneous Supplies
Plant Staff and Operators
Calculations of Income before Income Tax
Summary of Direct Annual Operating Costs
Calculation of ROI
26.14 Global Effects on Refining Economy
26.14.1 Carbon Tax
26.15 Economic Terminologies on Sustainability
Carbon footprint
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
An Improved Method of Using GWPs
Solution
Carbon Dioxide Equivalent
Carbon Credit
Carbon Offset
Carbon Price
Nomenclature
References
Bibliography
27. Sustainability in Engineering, Petroleum Refining and Alternative Fuels
27.0 Introduction
27.1 Impacts on the Overall Greenhouse Effect
27.2 Carbon Capture and Storage in Refineries
27.3 Sustainability in the Refinery Industries
27.4 Sustainability in Engineering Design Principles
27.5 Alternative Fuels (Biofuels)
27.6 Process Intensification (PI) in Biodiesel
27.7 Biofuel from Green Diesel
Analysis
Processing of Biodiesel
27.7.1 Specifications of Biodiesel
Advantages
Disadvantages
27.7.2 Bioethanol
27.7.3 Biodiesel Production
Application
Process
Reaction Chemistry
Economics
27.7.4 An Alternative Process of Manufacturing Biodiesel
Reaction Chemistry
27.7.5 Biofuel from Algae
27.7.6 Economic Viability of Algae
27.8 Fast Pyrolysis
27.8.1 Fast Pyrolysis Principle
27.8.2 Fast Pyrolysis Technologies
27.8.3 Minerals of Biomass
27.8.4 Applications of Fast Pyrolysis Liquid
Heat and Power
27.8.5 Chemicals and Materials
27.8.6 Bio-Fuels-Fast Pyrolysis Bio-Oil (FPBO) from Biomass Residues
Feedstocks
27.8.7 Properties of Pyrolysis Oil
Main advantages
27.9 Acid Gas Removal
Chemical Solvent Processes
Physical Solvent Processes
27.9.1 Process Description of Amine Gas Treating
Chemical Reactions
For hydrogen sulfide H2S removal
For carbon dioxide (CO2) removal
Amines Used [48]
27.9.2 Equilibrium Data for Amine–Sour Gas Systems
27.9.3 Emerging Technologies [48]
Chemistry
27.9.4 Advanced Amine Based Solvents
Chemistry
Disadvantages of Amine Solvents
27.10 Alkaline Salt Process (Hot Carbonate)
Split Flow Process of Potassium Carbonate Process
Two Stage Process
27.11 Ionic Liquids
Disadvantages
Viscosity
Tunability
A Case Study of Acid Gas Sweetening with DEA (Schlumberger and Honeywell UniSim® Design Suite R470 Technology)
Learning Objectives
Building the Simulation
Defining the Simulation Basis
Amines Property Package
Column Overview
Contactor
Adding the Basics
Adding the feed streams
Physical Unit Operations
Separator Operation
Contactor Operation
Valve Operation
Separator Operation
Heat Exchanger Operation
Regenerator Operation
Mixer Operation
Cooler Operation
Pump Operation
Adding Logical Unit Operations
Set Operation
Recycle Operation
Save your case
Analyzing the Results
27.12 Advanced Modeling
27.13 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
27.14 Risk Management
27.15 The Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE, U.K.) Position on Climate Change
27.15.1 Net Zero Carbon Emissions
Emissions Reduction must Start NOW
27.15.2 Guided by UN Sustainable Development Goals
Systems Thinking
Global Mechanisms
Best Available Techniques
Innovation
27.15.3 Training and Application of Skills
Education
27.16 Oil & Gas and Petrochemical Companies with Zero Carbon Emissions Targets by 2050
HydroflexTM Technology
Evonik and Siemens Energy Partnership
27.17 Offshore Petroleum Regulator for Environment and Decommissioning (OPRED), UK
Wood Plc, UK
Tata Chemicals Europe (TCE)
Hengli Petrochemical (Dalian) Co. Ltd. (HPDC)
Saudi Aramco
Processing
27.18 Gas Heated Reformer (GHR)
27.19 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
27.20 Distribution and Storage
Applications
27.21 Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) for Fuel Cells
27.22 New Technologies of Carbon Capture Storage
27.23 Carbon Clean Process Design (CC)
Advantages
Advantages
27.23.1 Cyclone Carbon Clean Technology
27.23.2 CycloneCC Technology
27.24 Electrochemically Mediated Amine Regeneration (EMAR)
Mechanism
27.25 Refinery of the Future
27.26 The Crude Oil to Chemical Strategy (COC)
27.27 Available Crude to Chemicals Processing Routes
27.28 Chemical Looping
27.29 Conclusions
Glossary
References
Bibliography
Glossary of Petroleum and Petrochemical Technical Terminologies
About the Author
Back to Top
Preface
Acknowledgments
23. Pressure Relieving Devices and Emergency Relief System Design
23.0 Introduction
23.1 Types of Positive Pressure Relieving Devices (See Manufacturers’ Catalogs for Design Details)
23.2 Types of Valves/Relief Devices
Conventional Safety Relief Valve
Balanced Safety Relief Valve
Special Valves
Rupture Disk
Example 23.1
23.3 Materials of Construction
Safety and Relief Valves: Pressure-Vacuum Relief Values
Rupture Disks
23.4 General Code Requirements [1]
23.5 Relief Mechanisms
Reclosing Devices, Spring Loaded
Non-Reclosing Pressure Relieving Devices
23.6 Pressure Settings and Design Basis
23.7 Unfired Pressure Vessels Only, But Not Fired or Unfired Steam Boilers
Non-Fire Exposure
External Fire or Heat Exposure Only and Process Relief
23.8 Relieving Capacity of Combinations of Safety Relief Valves and Rupture Disks or Non-Reclosure Devices (Reference ASME Code, Par. UG-127, U-132)
Primary Relief
Rupture Disk Devices, [44] Par UG-127
Footnotes to ASME Code
23.9 Establishing Relieving or Set Pressures
Safety and Safety Relief Valves for Steam Service
23.10 Selection and Application
Causes of System Overpressure
23.11 Capacity Requirements Evaluation for Process Operation (Non-Fire)
Installation
23.12 Piping Design
Pressure Drops
Line Sizing
23.13 Selection Features: Safety, Safety-Relief Valves, and Rupture Disks
Calculations of Relieving Areas: Safety and Relief Valves
23.15 Standard Pressure Relief Valves Relief Area Discharge Openings
23.16 Sizing Safety Relief Type Devices for Required Flow Area at Time of Relief
23.17 Effects of Two-Phase Vapor-Liquid Mixture on Relief Valve Capacity
23.18 Sizing for Gases or Vapors or Liquids for Conventional Valves with Constant Backpressure Only
Procedure
Establish Critical Flow for Gases and Vapors
Example 23.2: Flow through Sharp Edged Vent Orifice (Adapted after [41])
23.19 Orifice Area Calculations [42]
23.20 Sizing Valves for Liquid Relief: Pressure-Relief Valves Requiring Capacity Certification [5D]
23.21 Sizing Valves For Liquid Relief: Pressure Relief Valves Not Requiring Capacity Certification [5D]
23.22 Reaction Forces
Example 23.3
Solution
Example 23.4
Solution
23.23 Calculations of Orifice Flow Area using Pressure Relieving Balanced Bellows Valves, with Variable or Constant Backpressure
23.24 Sizing Valves for Liquid Expansion (Hydraulic Expansion of Liquid Filled Systems/Equipment/Piping)
23.25 Sizing Valves for Subcritical Flow: Gas or Vapor But Not Steam [5d]
23.26 Emergency Pressure Relief: Fires and Explosions Rupture Disks
23.27 External Fires
23.28 Set Pressures for External Fires
23.29 Heat Absorbed
The Severe Case
23.30 Surface Area Exposed to Fire
23.31 Relief Capacity for Fire Exposure
23.32 Code Requirements for External Fire Conditions
23.33 Design Procedure
Example 23.5
Solution
23.34 Pressure Relief Valve Orifice Areas on Vessels Containing Only Gas, Unwetted Surface
23.35 Rupture Disk Sizing Design and Specification
23.36 Specifications to Manufacturer
23.37 Size Selection
23.38 Calculation of Relieving Areas: Rupture Disks for Non-Explosive Service
23.39 The Manufacturing Range (MR)
23.40 Selection of Burst Pressure for Disk, Pb (Table 23.3)
Example 23.6 Rupture Disk Selection
23.41 Effects of Temperature on Disk
23.42 Rupture Disk Assembly Pressure Drop
23.43 Gases and Vapors: Rupture Disks [5a, Par, 4.8]
Volumetric Flow: scfm Standard Conditions (1.4.7 psia and 60°F)
Steam: Rupture Disk Sonic Flow; Critical Pressure = 0.55 and P2/P1 is Less Than Critical Pressure Ratio of 0.55
23.44 API for Subsonic Flow: Gas or Vapor (Not Steam)
Liquids: Rupture Disk
23.46 Sizing for Combination of Rupture Disk and Pressure Relief Valve in Series Combination
Example 23.7: Safety Relief Valve for Process Overpressure
Example 23.8: Rupture Disk External Fire Condition
Solution
Heat Input
Total Heat Input (from Figure 23.30a)
Quantity of Vapor Released
Critical Flow Pressure
Disk Area
Example 23.9: Rupture Disk for Vapors or Gases; Non-Fire Condition
Solution
Example 23.10: Liquids Rupture Disk
Example 23.11: Liquid Overpressure, Figure 23.34
23.47 Pressure-Vacuum Relief for Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
23.48 Basic Venting For Low-Pressure Storage Vessels
23.49 Non-Refrigerated Above Ground Tanks; API-Std. 2000
23.50 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVEs)
23.51 Managing Runaway Reactions
Hydroprocessing Units
Acid/Base Reactions
Methanation
Alkylation Unit Acid Runaway
23.51.1 Runaway Reactions: DIERS
23.52 Hazard Evaluation in the Chemical Process Industries
23.53 Hazard Assessment Procedures
Exotherms
Accumulation
23.54 Thermal Runaway Chemical Reaction Hazards
Heat Consumed Heating the Vessel. The f-Factor
Onset Temperature
Time-To-Maximum Rate
Maximum Reaction Temperature
Vent Sizing Package (VSP)
Vent Sizing Package 2TM (VSP2TM)
Advanced Reactive System Screening Tool (ARSST)
23.55 Two-Phase Flow Relief Sizing for Runaway Reaction
Runaway Reactions
Vapor Pressure Systems
Gassy Systems
Hybrid Systems
Simplified Nomograph Method
Vent Sizing Methods
Vapor Pressure Systems
Fauske’s Method
Gassy Systems
Homogeneous Two-Phase Venting Until Disengagement
Two-Phase Flow Through an Orifice
Conditions of Use
23.56 Discharge System
Design of The Vent Pipe
Safe Discharge
Direct Discharge to The Atmosphere
Example 23.12
Tempered Reaction
Solution
Example 23.13
Solution
Example 23.14
Solution
Example 23.15
Solution
DIERS Final Reports
23.57 Sizing for Two-Phase Fluids
Example 23.16
Solution
Example 23.17
Solution
Example 23.18
Example 23.19
Solution
Type 3 Integral Method [5]
Example 23.20 [76]
Solution
23.58 Flares/Flare Stacks
Flares
Sizing
Flame Length [5c]
Flame Distortion [5c] Caused by Wind Velocity
Flare Stack Height
Flaring Toxic Gases
Purging of Flare Stacks and Vessels/Piping
Pressure Purging
Example 23.21: Purge Vessel by Pressurization Following the Method of [41]
23.59 Compressible Flow for Discharge Piping
Design Equations for Compressible Fluid Flow for Discharge Piping
Critical Pressure, Pcrit.
Compressibility Factor Z
Friction factor, f
Discharge Line Sizing
23.60 Vent Piping
Discharge Reactive Force
Codes and Standards
Discharge Locations
Example 23.22
Solution
Example 23.23: Flare and Relief Blowdon System
Solution
A Rapid Solution for Sizing Depressuring Lines [5c]
Process Safety Incidents with Relief Valve Failures and Flarestacks
A Case Study on Williams Geismar Olefins Plant, Geismar, Louisiana [95]
Process Flow of the Olefins
The Incident
Technical Analysis
Key Lessons
Explosions in Flarestacks
Relief Valves
Location
Relief Valve Registers
Relief Valve Faults [92]
Tailpipes [92]
GLOSSARY
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Nomenclature
Subscripts
Greek Symbols
References
World Wide Web on Two-Phase Relief System
24. Process Safety and Energy Management in Petroleum Refinery
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Process Safety
24.2.1 Process Safety Information
24.2.2 Conduct of Operations (COO) and Operational Discipline (OD)
Process Safety Culture: BP Refinery Explosion, Texas City, 2005
Detailed Description
Causes
Key Lessons
Process Safety Culture
Selected CSB Findings
Selected Baker Panel Finding
Process Knowledge Management
Training and Performance Assurance
Management of Change (MOC)
Asset Integrity and Reliability
24.2.3 Process Hazard Analysis
Safe Operating Limits
Impact on Other Process Safety Elements
24.3 General Process Safety Hazards in a Refinery
Desalters
Critical Operating Parameters Impacting Process Safety
The Quality of Aqueous Effluent from Desalters
Desalter Water Supply
Vibration within Relief Valve (RV) Pipework
Example of Process Safety Incidents and Hazards
Hydrotreating [2]
24.4 Example of Process Safety Incidents and Hazards
Catalytic Cracking [2]
24.5 Process Safety Hazards
Reforming
Alkylation [2]
Hydrotreating Units
24.5.1 Examples of Process Safety Incidents and Hazards
HF release, Texas City, TX, 1987 [2]
HF release, Corpus Christi, TX, 2009
HF release at Philadelphia Energy Solutions Refining and Marketing LLC (PES),
Philadelphia 2019
Post-Incident Activities
Coking [2]
Equilon Anacortes Refinery Coking Plant Accident, 1998
Design Considerations
24.6 Hazards Relating to Equipment Failure
24.7 Columns and Other Process Pressure Vessels and Piping
Corrosion
Corrosion Inhibitors
24.8 Inadequate Design and Construction
Corrosion within “dead legs”
24.9 Inadequate Material of Construction Specification
24.10 Material Failures and Process Safety Prevention Programs
Piping Repair Incident at Tosco Avon Refinery, CA, USA
Lessons Learned from this accident
24.11 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)
Study Co-ordination
24.11.1 HAZOP Documentation Requirements
24.11.2 The Basic Concept of HAZOP
24.11.3 Division into Sections
Use of Guidewords
24.11.4 Conducting a HAZOP Study
Define Objective and Scope
Prepare for the Study
Record the Results
24.11.5 Hazop Case Study [8]
24.11.6 HAZOP of a Batch Process
Limitations of HAZOP Studies
Conclusions
24.12 HAZAN
24.13 Fault Tree Analysis
24.14 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
Methodology of FMEA
Definition of System to be Evaluated
Level of Analysis
Analysis of Failures
24.15 The Swiss Cheese Model
24.16 Bowtie Analysis
Validity Rules for Barriers
Example
Process Safety Isolation Practices in Petroleum Refinery and Chemical Process Industries
24.17 Inherently Safer Plant Design
Inherently Safer Plant Design in Reactor Systems
24.18 Energy Management in Petroleum Refinery
Total cost of energy
Energy Policy
Crude Distillation Unit
Heat Exchangers
Steam Traps
Optimization of Refinery Steam/Power System
Reducing fouling/surface cleaning/surface coating in heat exchanger/furnace
Pumping System
Electric Drives
Furnace System
Compressed Air
Flare System
24.18.1 Environmental Impact of Flaring
24.18.2 Environmental Impact of Petroleum Industry
24.18.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
24.18.4 Pollution Control Strategies in Petroleum Refinery
24.18.5 Energy Management and Co2 Emissions in Refinery
24.19 Benchmarking in Refinery
Glossary
Acronyms and Abbreviations
References
25. Product Blending
25.0 Introduction
25.1 Blending Processes
25.1.1 Gasoline Blending
25.2 Ternary Diagram of Crude Oils
25.2.1 Elemental Analysis and Ternary Classification of Crude Oils
25.2.2 Reading a Ternary Diagram
Solution
Example 25.1
Solution
Solution
Example 25.2
Solution
25.3 Reid Vapor Pressure Blending
Example 25.4
Solution
Example 25.5
Solution
Example 25.6
25.3.1 Reid Vapor Pressure Blending for Gasolines and Naphthas
Example 25.7
Solution
25.4 Flash Point Blending
Example 25.8
Solution
25.5 Alternative Methods for Determining the Blend Flash Point
Example 25.9
Solution
Example
Example 25.10
Solution
Example 25.11
25.6 Pour Point Blending
Example 25.12
Solution
Example 25.13 [2]
Solution
Example 25.14 [3]
Example 25.15
25.7 Cloud Point Blending
Example 25.16
Solution
25.8 Aniline Point Blending
Example 25.17
Solution
25.8.1 Alternative Aniline Point Blending
Example 25.18
Solution
25.9 Smoke Point Blending
Example 25.19
Solution
25.9.1 Smoke Point of Kerosenes
25.10 Viscosity Blending
Example 25.20
Solution
25.11 Regular Gasoline
25.12 Product Blending
25.12.1 Premium Gasoline
25.13 Viscosity Prediction From the Crude Assay
25.14 Gasoline Octane Number Blending
Example 25.21
Solution
Example 25.32
Solution
Example 25.23
Solution
25.15 Other Blending Correlations
Cetane Index
Diesel Index
U.S. Bureau of Mines Correlation Index (BMCI)
Aromaticity Factor
25.16 Fluidity of Residual Fuel Oils
25.16.1 Fluidity Test
25.16.2 Fluidity Blending
Example 25.24
Solution
25.17 Conversion of Kinematic Viscosity to Saybolt Universal
Viscosity or Saybolt Furol Viscosity
25.17.1 Conversion to Saybolt Universal Viscosity
Example 25.25
Solution
25.17.2 Conversion to Saybolt Furol Viscosity
Example 25.26
Solution
25.17.3 Refractive Index of Petroleum Fractions
Example 25.27
Solution
25.18 Determination of Molecular-Type Composition
Example 25.28
Solution
Example 25.29
Solution
25.19 Determination of Viscosity From Viscosity/Temperature Data at Two Points
Example 25.30
Solution
25.20 Linear Programming (LP) for Blending
LP Software
The Excel Solver
25.20.1 Mathematical Formulation
25.20.2 Problem Solution
Notation
Example 25.31
Solution
Example 25.32
Solution
Example 25.33
Solution
Example 25.34
Solution
Example 25.35
Solution
Example 25.36
Solution
A Case Study
Solution
25.21 Environmental Concern of Gasoline Blending
25.21.1 Operation of Catalytic Converter
25.21.2 Effectiveness of Catalytic Converters
References
Bibliography
26. Cost Estimation and Economic Evaluation
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Refinery Operating Cost
26.2.1 Theoretical Sales Realization Valuation Method
Example 26.1
26.2.2 Cost Allocation for Actual Usage
26.3 Capital Cost Estimation
26.4 Equipment Cost Estimations by Capacity Ratio Exponents
26.5 Yearly Cost Indices
Example 26.2
Solution
Example 26.3
Solution
26.6 Factored Cost Estimate
26.7 Detailed Factorial Cost Estimates
Zevnik and Buchanan’s Method
Timm’s Method
Bridgwater’s Method
26.8 Bare Module Cost for Equipment
26.9 Summary of the Factorial Method
26.10 Computer Cost Estimating
26.11 Project Evaluation
Introduction
26.12 Cash Flows
Return on Investment (ROI)
Accounting Coordination
Payback Period (PBP)
Example 26.5
Present Worth (or Present Value)
Net Present Value (NPV)
The Profitability Index (PI)
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)
Example 26.6
Relationship between PBP and DCFRR
Example 26.7
Solution
Example 26.8
Solution
26.12.1 Incremental Criteria
Depreciation
26.12.2 Profitability
Example 26.9
Solution
Example 26.10
Solution
Economic Analysis
Example 26.11
Solution
26.12.3 Inflation
26.12.4 Sensitivity Analysis
26.13 Refining Economics
Crude Slates
Refinery Configuration
Product Slates
Refinery Utilization
Environmental Initiatives
26.13.1 Refinery Margin Definitions
Example 26.12
Solution
Example 26.13
26.13.2 Refinery Complexity
Example 26.14
Solution
26.13.3 Supply and Demand Balance
Product Quality
Standard Density
Blending Components
Constraining Properties
Quality Premiums/Discounts
A Case Study [44]
Problem Statement
Process Description
Catalytic Reformer
Naphtha Desulfurizer
Summary of Investment and Utilities Costs
Calculation of Direct Annual Operating Costs
On-Stream Time
Water Makeup
Power
Fuel
Royalties
Catalyst Consumption
Insurance
Local Taxes
Maintenance
Miscellaneous Supplies
Plant Staff and Operators
Calculations of Income before Income Tax
Summary of Direct Annual Operating Costs
Calculation of ROI
26.14 Global Effects on Refining Economy
26.14.1 Carbon Tax
26.15 Economic Terminologies on Sustainability
Carbon footprint
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
An Improved Method of Using GWPs
Solution
Carbon Dioxide Equivalent
Carbon Credit
Carbon Offset
Carbon Price
Nomenclature
References
Bibliography
27. Sustainability in Engineering, Petroleum Refining and Alternative Fuels
27.0 Introduction
27.1 Impacts on the Overall Greenhouse Effect
27.2 Carbon Capture and Storage in Refineries
27.3 Sustainability in the Refinery Industries
27.4 Sustainability in Engineering Design Principles
27.5 Alternative Fuels (Biofuels)
27.6 Process Intensification (PI) in Biodiesel
27.7 Biofuel from Green Diesel
Analysis
Processing of Biodiesel
27.7.1 Specifications of Biodiesel
Advantages
Disadvantages
27.7.2 Bioethanol
27.7.3 Biodiesel Production
Application
Process
Reaction Chemistry
Economics
27.7.4 An Alternative Process of Manufacturing Biodiesel
Reaction Chemistry
27.7.5 Biofuel from Algae
27.7.6 Economic Viability of Algae
27.8 Fast Pyrolysis
27.8.1 Fast Pyrolysis Principle
27.8.2 Fast Pyrolysis Technologies
27.8.3 Minerals of Biomass
27.8.4 Applications of Fast Pyrolysis Liquid
Heat and Power
27.8.5 Chemicals and Materials
27.8.6 Bio-Fuels-Fast Pyrolysis Bio-Oil (FPBO) from Biomass Residues
Feedstocks
27.8.7 Properties of Pyrolysis Oil
Main advantages
27.9 Acid Gas Removal
Chemical Solvent Processes
Physical Solvent Processes
27.9.1 Process Description of Amine Gas Treating
Chemical Reactions
For hydrogen sulfide H2S removal
For carbon dioxide (CO2) removal
Amines Used [48]
27.9.2 Equilibrium Data for Amine–Sour Gas Systems
27.9.3 Emerging Technologies [48]
Chemistry
27.9.4 Advanced Amine Based Solvents
Chemistry
Disadvantages of Amine Solvents
27.10 Alkaline Salt Process (Hot Carbonate)
Split Flow Process of Potassium Carbonate Process
Two Stage Process
27.11 Ionic Liquids
Disadvantages
Viscosity
Tunability
A Case Study of Acid Gas Sweetening with DEA (Schlumberger and Honeywell UniSim® Design Suite R470 Technology)
Learning Objectives
Building the Simulation
Defining the Simulation Basis
Amines Property Package
Column Overview
Contactor
Adding the Basics
Adding the feed streams
Physical Unit Operations
Separator Operation
Contactor Operation
Valve Operation
Separator Operation
Heat Exchanger Operation
Regenerator Operation
Mixer Operation
Cooler Operation
Pump Operation
Adding Logical Unit Operations
Set Operation
Recycle Operation
Save your case
Analyzing the Results
27.12 Advanced Modeling
27.13 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
27.14 Risk Management
27.15 The Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE, U.K.) Position on Climate Change
27.15.1 Net Zero Carbon Emissions
Emissions Reduction must Start NOW
27.15.2 Guided by UN Sustainable Development Goals
Systems Thinking
Global Mechanisms
Best Available Techniques
Innovation
27.15.3 Training and Application of Skills
Education
27.16 Oil & Gas and Petrochemical Companies with Zero Carbon Emissions Targets by 2050
HydroflexTM Technology
Evonik and Siemens Energy Partnership
27.17 Offshore Petroleum Regulator for Environment and Decommissioning (OPRED), UK
Wood Plc, UK
Tata Chemicals Europe (TCE)
Hengli Petrochemical (Dalian) Co. Ltd. (HPDC)
Saudi Aramco
Processing
27.18 Gas Heated Reformer (GHR)
27.19 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
27.20 Distribution and Storage
Applications
27.21 Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) for Fuel Cells
27.22 New Technologies of Carbon Capture Storage
27.23 Carbon Clean Process Design (CC)
Advantages
Advantages
27.23.1 Cyclone Carbon Clean Technology
27.23.2 CycloneCC Technology
27.24 Electrochemically Mediated Amine Regeneration (EMAR)
Mechanism
27.25 Refinery of the Future
27.26 The Crude Oil to Chemical Strategy (COC)
27.27 Available Crude to Chemicals Processing Routes
27.28 Chemical Looping
27.29 Conclusions
Glossary
References
Bibliography
Glossary of Petroleum and Petrochemical Technical Terminologies
About the Author
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