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Submit a ProposalNanocellulose
 | A Biopolymer for Biomedical Applications Edited by Mainak Mukhopadhyay and Debalina Bhattacharya Copyright: 2024 | Status: Published ISBN: 9781394172375 | Hardcover | 414 pages Price: $225 USD  |
One Line Description
This book provides the latest up-to-date information on the exciting applications of nanocellulose in human diseases by giving in-depth explanations of their synthesis, characterization, and real-world applications in the biomedical sectors.
Audience
Researchers in areas including environmental biotechnology, bioprocess engineering, renewable energy, chemical engineering, nanotechnology, biotechnology, and microbiology will be interested in this book.
Researchers in areas including environmental biotechnology, bioprocess engineering, renewable energy, chemical engineering, nanotechnology, biotechnology, and microbiology will be interested in this book.
Description
Nanocellulose is a promising nanomaterial with unique qualities including low cost, durability, non-toxicity, accessibility, etc. Cellulose can be classified into two types: nanocrystals and nanofibrils, depending on the way it is extracted from trees, plants, or other cellulose-containing species. Textiles, cosmetics, and food products are just a few of the commercial uses for nanocellulose. However, it also has strong potential for use in medicine.
The book presents the most recent scientific research on nanocellulose as a biopolymer and its potential uses in medicine. The reader will discover:
• explains the synthesis of bacterial nanocellulose from different bacterial species and their characteristics;
• details processes and applications of electrospinning and the synthesis of novel nanocellulose-based nanocomposite materials;
• discusses the various surface functionalization processes of cellulose and their advantages and disadvantages;
• delves into the application of nanocellulose in tissue engineering and grafting, such as in wound dressing and implants;
• discusses nanocellulose as a carrier for drug delivery, as well as the synthesis of antibacterial nanocomposites for treating multi-drug-resistant bacteria;
• explores the role of nanocellulose in the treatment of renal failure, nanocellulose hydrogel for ophthalmic and dental applications.
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Nanocellulose is a promising nanomaterial with unique qualities including low cost, durability, non-toxicity, accessibility, etc. Cellulose can be classified into two types: nanocrystals and nanofibrils, depending on the way it is extracted from trees, plants, or other cellulose-containing species. Textiles, cosmetics, and food products are just a few of the commercial uses for nanocellulose. However, it also has strong potential for use in medicine.
The book presents the most recent scientific research on nanocellulose as a biopolymer and its potential uses in medicine. The reader will discover:
• explains the synthesis of bacterial nanocellulose from different bacterial species and their characteristics;
• details processes and applications of electrospinning and the synthesis of novel nanocellulose-based nanocomposite materials;
• discusses the various surface functionalization processes of cellulose and their advantages and disadvantages;
• delves into the application of nanocellulose in tissue engineering and grafting, such as in wound dressing and implants;
• discusses nanocellulose as a carrier for drug delivery, as well as the synthesis of antibacterial nanocomposites for treating multi-drug-resistant bacteria;
• explores the role of nanocellulose in the treatment of renal failure, nanocellulose hydrogel for ophthalmic and dental applications.
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Author / Editor Details
Mainak Mukhopadhyay, PhD, is an associate professor at the Department of Biosciences, JIS University, Kolkata. He obtained his PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology in Kharagpur, India in 2014. His research interests include enzymology, nanobiotechnology, and biomass conversion technology. He was awarded the Petrotech Research Fellowship in 2008. In 2016, he was awarded the Early Career Research Award from DSTSERB. He has co-authored 15 peer-reviewed papers and three review papers, edited one book and 19 book chapters, and filed three patents.
Mainak Mukhopadhyay, PhD, is an associate professor at the Department of Biosciences, JIS University, Kolkata. He obtained his PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology in Kharagpur, India in 2014. His research interests include enzymology, nanobiotechnology, and biomass conversion technology. He was awarded the Petrotech Research Fellowship in 2008. In 2016, he was awarded the Early Career Research Award from DSTSERB. He has co-authored 15 peer-reviewed papers and three review papers, edited one book and 19 book chapters, and filed three patents.
Debalina Bhattacharya, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Microbiology, Maulana Azad College, West Bengal, India. She obtained her PhD from Jadavpur University, India in 2014, which focused on cancer biology and bionanotechnology. She has co-authored 24 peer-reviewed research articles and review articles, as well as 17 book chapters.
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Table of Contents
Preface
1. Nanocellulose: A Cutting Edge Biopolymer - An Overview
Bidisha Saha and Mainak Mukhopadhyay
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Nanocellulose: A Brief Overview
1.2.1 Structure and Source of Cellulose
1.2.2 Nomenclature and Types of Nanocellulose
1.3 Extraction of Nanocellulose
1.3.1 Mechanical Extraction
1.3.2 Chemical Extraction
1.4 Surface Modification and Functionalization for Nanocelluloses
1.4.1 Esterification
1.4.2 Silylation
1.4.3 Amidation
1.4.4 Sulfonation
1.5 Applications of Nanocellulose in Polymeric Composites
1.5.1 Nanocellulose-Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites
1.5.1.1 Dispersion of Nanocellulose in the Matrix
1.5.1.2 Mechanical Performance of Resulting Nanocomposite
1.5.2 Nanocellulose-Based Hydrogels
1.5.3 Nanocellulose-Based Filaments
1.5.4 Nanocellulose for Biomedical Application
1.6 Summary and Prospects
1.6.1 Advantages of Nanocellulose-Reinforced Polymer Composites
1.6.2 Current Challenges
1.6.2.1 Functionalization
1.6.2.2 Mass Production
1.6.3 Conclusion and Future Developments
References
2. Cellulose Nanofibers (CNF) and Nanocrystals (CNC): Pre-Treatment, Preparation, and Characterization
Jiawei Chen, Yu Chen and Tanushree Ghosh
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNF)
2.2.1 Pre-Treatment
2.2.1.1 Retting Process
2.2.1.2 Desalting Process
2.2.1.3 Dewaxing Process
2.2.1.4 Alkali Treatment
2.2.1.5 Ionic Liquid Extraction
2.2.1.6 Bleaching Treatment
2.2.1.7 Acid Treatment
2.2.1.8 Microwave-Assisted Hydrolysis
2.2.1.9 TEMPO-Oxidation
2.2.2 Extraction
2.2.2.1 Homogenization
2.2.2.2 Microfluidization
2.2.2.3 Ball Milling
2.2.2.4 Grinding
2.2.2.5 Blending
2.2.2.6 Sonication
2.2.2.7 Steam Explosion
2.2.2.8 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
2.2.3 Post-Treatment
2.2.3.1 Dialysis
2.2.3.2 Centrifugation
2.2.3.3 Drying
2.3 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNC)
2.3.1 Pre-Treatment
2.3.1.1 Alkali Treatment
2.3.1.2 Bleaching
2.3.1.3 Other Pre-Treatments
2.3.2 Extraction
2.3.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis
2.3.2.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
2.3.2.3 TEMPO Oxidation
2.3.2.4 Mechanical Process
2.3.3 Post-Treatment
2.4 Characterization
2.4.1 Morphology
2.4.1.1 Microscopy
2.4.2 Physical Characterization
2.4.2.1 XRD
2.4.2.2 Zeta Potential
2.4.2.3 TGA
2.4.3 Chemical Characterization
2.4.3.1 FTIR
2.4.3.2 XPS
2.4.3.3 Elemental Analysis
2.4.4 Mechanical Characterization
2.5 Conclusion
References
3. Synthesis and Characterization of Bacterial Nanocellulose
Moushali Sil, Kamolika Mukhopadhyay, Durba Roy, Sampriti Kundu and Debalina Bhattacharya
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Production of Bacterial Nanocellulose
3.1.2 Classification of Bcs Operon
3.2 Structure and Functions of Proteins Involved in Bcs Operon
3.3 Diverse Nature of Bcs Operon
3.4 Regulation of Bacterial Nanocellulose Biosynthesis
3.5 Genetic Manipulation of BNC Producing Strains to Increase Yield
3.6 Factors for BNC Production
3.7 Characterization of Bacterial Nanocellulose
3.7.1 X-Ray Diffraction Spectroscopy (XRD)
3.7.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
3.7.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
3.7.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
3.7.5 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
3.7.6 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
3.7.7 Electrophoretic Light Scattering (ELS)
3.7.8 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
3.7.9 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
3.7.10 Particle Size Analysis
3.8 Conclusion
References
4. Process and Applications of Electrospinning
Anushka Lather and Shubhangi Paliwal
4.1 Introduction
4.2 A Brief History of Electrospinning
4.3 Setup for the Experiment
4.4 Principle of the Process
4.5 Factors Affecting the Process of Electrospinning
4.5.1 Operating Parameters
4.5.1.1 Applied Voltage
4.5.1.2 Flow Rate
4.5.1.3 The Separation between the Metallic Needle’s Tip and the Collector
4.5.2 Material Parameters
4.5.2.1 Polymer Concentration
4.5.2.2 Viscosity
4.5.2.3 Surface Tension
4.5.2.4 Conductivity
4.5.3 Properties of Solvents
4.5.3.1 Vapor Pressure
4.5.3.2 Allowability
4.5.4 Environmental Aspects
4.6 Electrospinning Variations
4.6.1 Needle-Based Electrospinning
4.6.1.1 Single Nozzle
4.6.1.2 Coaxial Electrospinning
4.6.1.3 Tri-Axial Electrospinning
4.6.1.4 Multichannel Electrospinning
4.6.2 Needleless Electrospinning
4.6.3 Melt Electrospinning
4.6.4 Emulsion Electrospinning
4.6.5 Solution Electrospinning
4.7 Applications of Electrospun Fibers
4.7.1 Biomedical Applications
4.7.1.1 Drug Delivery Systems
4.7.1.2 Tissue Engineering
4.7.1.3 Wound Healing
4.8 Summary, Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
5. Development of Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites and Its Properties
Sunita Adak
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Nanocomposite
5.1.2 Nanofillers
5.2 Nanocellulose
5.2.1 Types and Nomenclature
5.2.2 Sources and Preparation
5.2.2.1 Top-Down Process
5.2.2.2 Bottom-Up Process
5.3 Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites
5.3.1 Nanocellulose Properties
5.3.2 Nanocomposite Fabrication
5.3.2.1 Solution Casting
5.3.2.2 Melt Mixing
5.3.2.3 In-Situ Polymerization
5.3.2.4 Electrospinning
5.3.2.5 Other Fabrication Techniques
5.4 Properties of Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites
5.4.1 Mechanical Property
5.4.2 Thermal Property
5.4.3 Barrier Property
5.4.4 Optical Property
5.4.5 Other Properties
5.5 Conclusion
References
6. Surface Functionalization Process: Its Advantages and Disadvantages
Pranabi Maji and Dibyarupa Pal
6.1 Chemical Approach
6.1.1 Acetylation/Esterification
6.1.2 Polymer Grafting
6.1.3 Silylation
6.1.4 Acylation/Alkanoylation
6.1.5 Sulfonation
6.1.6 TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation
6.2 Enzymatic Approach
6.2.1 Direct Enzymatic Approach
6.2.1.1 Phosphorylation via Hexokinases
6.2.1.2 Cellulose Acylation/Esterification by Hydrolases
6.2.1.3 Esterification via Lipases
6.2.2 Indirect Enzymatic Approach
6.2.2.1 Surface Modification via Xyloglucan Endotransglucosylase
6.2.2.2 Grafting of Active Molecules
6.3 Physical Techniques
6.3.1 Plasma Treatment
6.3.2 Flame Treatment
6.3.3 Corona Treatment
6.3.4 Ion Beam Treatment
6.4 Conclusion
References
7. Applications of Nanocellulose in Tissue Engineering and Tissue Grafting
Sneha Dey, Paramjeet Singh, Sampriti Sarkar and Avik Acharya Chowdhury
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nanocellulose and Its Properties
7.2.1 Physical Properties
7.2.2 Surface Chemistry
7.2.3 Biological Characteristics
7.2.3.1 Biological and Hematological Compatibility
7.2.3.2 In Vivo Biodegradability
7.3 Classification of Nanocellulose and Their Synthesis
7.3.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
7.3.2 Cellulose Nanofibrils (CNFs)
7.3.3 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
7.4 Composites Based on Nanocellulose
7.4.1 Nanocellulose and Graphene Composite
7.4.2 Nanocellulose and Polyvinyl Alcohol Composite
7.4.3 Nanocellulose and Chitosan Composite
7.5 Applications of Nanocellulose in Tissue Engineering and Tissue Grafting
7.5.1 Nanocellulose for Engineering Skin and Tissues
7.5.2 Nanocellulose for Repairing Blood Vessels
7.5.3 Nanocellulose in Neural Tissue Engineering
7.5.4 Nanocellulose in Bone Tissue Engineering
7.6 Limitations of Nanocellulose
7.6.1 Production Cost
7.6.2 Mechanical Properties
7.6.3 Scalability
7.6.4 Compatibility with Cells
7.7 Future Prospects
7.8 Conclusion
References
8. Application of Nanocellulose for Wound Dressings
B.A. Aderibigbe
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types of Wounds
8.3 Nanocellulose-Based Wound Dressings
8.3.1 Hydrogels
8.3.2 Sponges
8.3.3 Nanofibers
8.3.4 Hydrocolloids
8.3.5 Films/Membranes
8.3.6 3D-Printed Wound Dressings
8.3.7 Composites
8.3.8 Other Scaffolds
8.4 Commercialized Nanocellulose-Based Wound Dressings
8.5 Future Perspective and Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
9. Use of Nanocellulose for Drug Carriers for Drug Delivery Applications
Rubai Ahmed, Swarnali Das, Jhimli Banerjee, Sovan Samanta, Sandeep Kumar Dash
and Arindam Pramanik
Abbreviations
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Strategies for Drug Delivery
9.2.1 Active Targeting Drug Delivery
9.2.2 Passive Targeting Drug Delivery
9.3 Application of Various Biomaterials for Drug Delivery
9.3.1 Synthetic Biomaterials
9.3.2 Natural Biomaterials
9.4 Different Methods Involved in Nanocellulose Synthesis
9.4.1 Mechanical Synthesis
9.4.2 Chemical Synthesis
9.4.3 Biological Synthesis
9.5 Types of Nanocellulose
9.5.1 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs)
9.5.2 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
9.5.3 Microfibrillated Cellulose (MFC)
9.5.4 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)
9.6 Different Methods Used for Drug Loading/Encapsulation of Drug in Nanocellulose
9.6.1 1D Formulation Strategies
9.6.2 2D Formulation Strategies
9.6.3 3D Formulation Strategies
9.7 Importance of Nanocellulose as Drug Carrier
9.7.1 Biodegradability and Biocompatibility
9.7.2 Toxicological Concern
9.8 Drug Delivery via Different Nanocelluloses
9.8.1 Nanocellulose Aerogels
9.8.2 pH-Responsive Hydrogels
9.8.3 Injectable Hydrogels—Implants
9.8.4 Magnetic Nanocellulose
9.9 Nanocellulose-Based Drug Delivery in Pathological Disorder
9.9.1 Inflammation
9.9.2 Cancer
9.9.3 Bone-Related Disorder
9.9.4 Pulmonary Disorder
9.9.5 Wound Healing
9.9.6 Optical-Related Disease
9.10 Commercialized and Research-Associated Nanocellulose Products Reported in Clinical Trials
9.11 Future Perspective
9.12 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
10. Preparation of Antibacterial Nanocomposite Materials Using Nanocellulose
Moumita Bishai
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Nanocellulose
10.3 Functionalization of Nanocellulose
10.4 Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposite
10.5 Properties of the Nanocomposites
10.6 Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposite Processing
10.6.1 Solution Casting
10.6.2 Melt Intercalation
10.6.3 Impregnation
10.6.4 In Situ Polymerization
10.6.5 Coating
10.6.6 Freeze Drying
10.6.7 3D Printing
10.6.8 Electrospinning
10.6.9 In Situ Composites
10.6.10 Other Methods
10.7 Antibacterial Properties of the Nanocomposite Material
10.8 Conclusions and Future Trends
References
11. Application of Nanocellulose for Treatment of Renal Failure
Prapti Chakraborty and Priyanka Ray
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Renal Disease and Its Implications
11.2.1 The Structure and Function of the Kidneys
11.2.2 Types of Renal Disease
11.2.2.1 Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)
11.2.2.2 Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
11.2.2.3 Glomerulonephritis
11.2.2.4 Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)
11.2.3 Implications of Renal Disease
11.2.3.1 Electrolyte Imbalances
11.2.3.2 Accumulation of Waste Products
11.2.3.3 Hypertension
11.2.3.4 Anemia
11.2.3.5 Bone Disease
11.2.4 Causes of Renal Disease
11.2.5 Symptoms of Renal Disease
11.2.6 Diagnosis of Renal Disease
11.3 Nanocellulose—Concept and Formulation
11.3.1 Methods of Extraction
11.3.1.1 Mechanical Extraction
11.3.1.2 Chemical Extraction
11.3.2 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs)
11.3.3 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
11.3.4 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
11.3.5 Cellulose Nanofibrils (CNFib)
11.3.6 Nanocellulose Aerogels
11.4 Kidney Targeted Drug Delivery by Nanocellulose
11.5 Conclusion
References
12. Use of Nanocellulose Hydrogels for Ophthalmic Applications
Gouranga Dutta, Debabrata Ghosh Dastidar and Abimanyu Sugumaran
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nanocellulose Overview
12.2.1 Structure, Source, and Isolation of Nanocellulose
12.2.2 Types and Properties of Nanocellulose
12.3 Nanocellulose Compatibility for Ophthalmic Applications
12.4 Nanocellulose Hydrogel
12.5 Ophthalmic Application of Nanocellulose
12.6 Conclusion and Future Aspect
References
13. Application of Nanocellulose as Implant and Grafting Materials
Shubhangi Paliwal and Anushka Lather
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Chemical as Well as the Structural Makeup of Cellulose Fibers
13.3 Cellulose—Origin, Extraction, and Sources
13.4 Isolation, Chemical Transformations, and Purification of Cellulose
13.4.1 Nanofibrillar Cellulose (NFC)
13.4.2 Cellulose Nanocrystal or CNC
13.4.3 Microcrystalline Cellulose (MCC)
13.4.4 Nanocellulose—Chemical Alterations
13.5 Application of Nanocellulose as Implant and Grafting Materials
13.6 Conclusion
References
14. Use of Nanocellulose for Dental Applications
Rupankar Ghosh, Amlan Roychowdhury and Ditipriya Hazra
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Nanocellulose versus Cellulose
14.1.2 Bacterial Nanocellulose Production
14.1.3 Plant-Based Nanocellulose Preparation
14.2 Application of Nanocellulose in Dental Science
14.2.1 BNC-Based Membrane Barrier in Guided Tissue Regeneration
14.2.2 Periodontal Disease Treatment
14.2.3 Class II Furcation Lesion Treatment
14.2.4 Oral Mucosa-Based Surgical Wound Treatment
14.2.5 Treating Canker Sore
14.2.6 Dental Pulp Tissue Treatment and Soft Tissue Reinforcement
14.2.7 Dental Root Canal Treatment
14.2.8 Chitosan-Based Hydrogel Reinforced with Oxidized Nanocellulose in the Field of Tooth Engineering
14.2.9 Pickering Emulsion-Based Oral Drug Delivery
14.3 Conclusion
References
15. Future Prospects of Bacterial Nanocellulose and Its Composites
Anbazhagan Thirumalai, Mahashweta Mitra Ghosh, Agnishwar Girigoswami and Koyeli Girigoswami
Abbreviations
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Cellulose
15.3 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)
15.3.1 BC/Natural Polymer Composites
15.3.2 BC/Water-Soluble Synthetic Polymer Nanocomposites
15.3.3 BC/Thermoplastic Nanocomposites
15.3.4 BNC-Based Electroconductive Polymer Nanocomposites
15.4 Bacterial Nanocellulose-Based Hybrid Nanocomposites
15.4.1 BNC/Metal and Metal Oxide Nanocomposites
15.4.2 Bacterial Cellulose Carbon Nanocomposites
15.5 Biomedical Applications of BNC
15.5.1 Drug Delivery
15.5.2 Biosensing
15.5.3 Wound Dressing Material
15.5.4 Antimicrobial Activity
15.5.5 Artificial Skin
15.5.6 Tissue Engineering
15.5.7 Vascular Tissue Engineering
15.5.8 Bone Tissue Engineering
15.5.9 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
15.5.10 Anticoagulant Character
15.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Index
Back to Top
Preface
1. Nanocellulose: A Cutting Edge Biopolymer - An Overview
Bidisha Saha and Mainak Mukhopadhyay
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Nanocellulose: A Brief Overview
1.2.1 Structure and Source of Cellulose
1.2.2 Nomenclature and Types of Nanocellulose
1.3 Extraction of Nanocellulose
1.3.1 Mechanical Extraction
1.3.2 Chemical Extraction
1.4 Surface Modification and Functionalization for Nanocelluloses
1.4.1 Esterification
1.4.2 Silylation
1.4.3 Amidation
1.4.4 Sulfonation
1.5 Applications of Nanocellulose in Polymeric Composites
1.5.1 Nanocellulose-Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites
1.5.1.1 Dispersion of Nanocellulose in the Matrix
1.5.1.2 Mechanical Performance of Resulting Nanocomposite
1.5.2 Nanocellulose-Based Hydrogels
1.5.3 Nanocellulose-Based Filaments
1.5.4 Nanocellulose for Biomedical Application
1.6 Summary and Prospects
1.6.1 Advantages of Nanocellulose-Reinforced Polymer Composites
1.6.2 Current Challenges
1.6.2.1 Functionalization
1.6.2.2 Mass Production
1.6.3 Conclusion and Future Developments
References
2. Cellulose Nanofibers (CNF) and Nanocrystals (CNC): Pre-Treatment, Preparation, and Characterization
Jiawei Chen, Yu Chen and Tanushree Ghosh
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNF)
2.2.1 Pre-Treatment
2.2.1.1 Retting Process
2.2.1.2 Desalting Process
2.2.1.3 Dewaxing Process
2.2.1.4 Alkali Treatment
2.2.1.5 Ionic Liquid Extraction
2.2.1.6 Bleaching Treatment
2.2.1.7 Acid Treatment
2.2.1.8 Microwave-Assisted Hydrolysis
2.2.1.9 TEMPO-Oxidation
2.2.2 Extraction
2.2.2.1 Homogenization
2.2.2.2 Microfluidization
2.2.2.3 Ball Milling
2.2.2.4 Grinding
2.2.2.5 Blending
2.2.2.6 Sonication
2.2.2.7 Steam Explosion
2.2.2.8 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
2.2.3 Post-Treatment
2.2.3.1 Dialysis
2.2.3.2 Centrifugation
2.2.3.3 Drying
2.3 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNC)
2.3.1 Pre-Treatment
2.3.1.1 Alkali Treatment
2.3.1.2 Bleaching
2.3.1.3 Other Pre-Treatments
2.3.2 Extraction
2.3.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis
2.3.2.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
2.3.2.3 TEMPO Oxidation
2.3.2.4 Mechanical Process
2.3.3 Post-Treatment
2.4 Characterization
2.4.1 Morphology
2.4.1.1 Microscopy
2.4.2 Physical Characterization
2.4.2.1 XRD
2.4.2.2 Zeta Potential
2.4.2.3 TGA
2.4.3 Chemical Characterization
2.4.3.1 FTIR
2.4.3.2 XPS
2.4.3.3 Elemental Analysis
2.4.4 Mechanical Characterization
2.5 Conclusion
References
3. Synthesis and Characterization of Bacterial Nanocellulose
Moushali Sil, Kamolika Mukhopadhyay, Durba Roy, Sampriti Kundu and Debalina Bhattacharya
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Production of Bacterial Nanocellulose
3.1.2 Classification of Bcs Operon
3.2 Structure and Functions of Proteins Involved in Bcs Operon
3.3 Diverse Nature of Bcs Operon
3.4 Regulation of Bacterial Nanocellulose Biosynthesis
3.5 Genetic Manipulation of BNC Producing Strains to Increase Yield
3.6 Factors for BNC Production
3.7 Characterization of Bacterial Nanocellulose
3.7.1 X-Ray Diffraction Spectroscopy (XRD)
3.7.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
3.7.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
3.7.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
3.7.5 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
3.7.6 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
3.7.7 Electrophoretic Light Scattering (ELS)
3.7.8 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
3.7.9 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
3.7.10 Particle Size Analysis
3.8 Conclusion
References
4. Process and Applications of Electrospinning
Anushka Lather and Shubhangi Paliwal
4.1 Introduction
4.2 A Brief History of Electrospinning
4.3 Setup for the Experiment
4.4 Principle of the Process
4.5 Factors Affecting the Process of Electrospinning
4.5.1 Operating Parameters
4.5.1.1 Applied Voltage
4.5.1.2 Flow Rate
4.5.1.3 The Separation between the Metallic Needle’s Tip and the Collector
4.5.2 Material Parameters
4.5.2.1 Polymer Concentration
4.5.2.2 Viscosity
4.5.2.3 Surface Tension
4.5.2.4 Conductivity
4.5.3 Properties of Solvents
4.5.3.1 Vapor Pressure
4.5.3.2 Allowability
4.5.4 Environmental Aspects
4.6 Electrospinning Variations
4.6.1 Needle-Based Electrospinning
4.6.1.1 Single Nozzle
4.6.1.2 Coaxial Electrospinning
4.6.1.3 Tri-Axial Electrospinning
4.6.1.4 Multichannel Electrospinning
4.6.2 Needleless Electrospinning
4.6.3 Melt Electrospinning
4.6.4 Emulsion Electrospinning
4.6.5 Solution Electrospinning
4.7 Applications of Electrospun Fibers
4.7.1 Biomedical Applications
4.7.1.1 Drug Delivery Systems
4.7.1.2 Tissue Engineering
4.7.1.3 Wound Healing
4.8 Summary, Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
5. Development of Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites and Its Properties
Sunita Adak
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Nanocomposite
5.1.2 Nanofillers
5.2 Nanocellulose
5.2.1 Types and Nomenclature
5.2.2 Sources and Preparation
5.2.2.1 Top-Down Process
5.2.2.2 Bottom-Up Process
5.3 Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites
5.3.1 Nanocellulose Properties
5.3.2 Nanocomposite Fabrication
5.3.2.1 Solution Casting
5.3.2.2 Melt Mixing
5.3.2.3 In-Situ Polymerization
5.3.2.4 Electrospinning
5.3.2.5 Other Fabrication Techniques
5.4 Properties of Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites
5.4.1 Mechanical Property
5.4.2 Thermal Property
5.4.3 Barrier Property
5.4.4 Optical Property
5.4.5 Other Properties
5.5 Conclusion
References
6. Surface Functionalization Process: Its Advantages and Disadvantages
Pranabi Maji and Dibyarupa Pal
6.1 Chemical Approach
6.1.1 Acetylation/Esterification
6.1.2 Polymer Grafting
6.1.3 Silylation
6.1.4 Acylation/Alkanoylation
6.1.5 Sulfonation
6.1.6 TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation
6.2 Enzymatic Approach
6.2.1 Direct Enzymatic Approach
6.2.1.1 Phosphorylation via Hexokinases
6.2.1.2 Cellulose Acylation/Esterification by Hydrolases
6.2.1.3 Esterification via Lipases
6.2.2 Indirect Enzymatic Approach
6.2.2.1 Surface Modification via Xyloglucan Endotransglucosylase
6.2.2.2 Grafting of Active Molecules
6.3 Physical Techniques
6.3.1 Plasma Treatment
6.3.2 Flame Treatment
6.3.3 Corona Treatment
6.3.4 Ion Beam Treatment
6.4 Conclusion
References
7. Applications of Nanocellulose in Tissue Engineering and Tissue Grafting
Sneha Dey, Paramjeet Singh, Sampriti Sarkar and Avik Acharya Chowdhury
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nanocellulose and Its Properties
7.2.1 Physical Properties
7.2.2 Surface Chemistry
7.2.3 Biological Characteristics
7.2.3.1 Biological and Hematological Compatibility
7.2.3.2 In Vivo Biodegradability
7.3 Classification of Nanocellulose and Their Synthesis
7.3.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
7.3.2 Cellulose Nanofibrils (CNFs)
7.3.3 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
7.4 Composites Based on Nanocellulose
7.4.1 Nanocellulose and Graphene Composite
7.4.2 Nanocellulose and Polyvinyl Alcohol Composite
7.4.3 Nanocellulose and Chitosan Composite
7.5 Applications of Nanocellulose in Tissue Engineering and Tissue Grafting
7.5.1 Nanocellulose for Engineering Skin and Tissues
7.5.2 Nanocellulose for Repairing Blood Vessels
7.5.3 Nanocellulose in Neural Tissue Engineering
7.5.4 Nanocellulose in Bone Tissue Engineering
7.6 Limitations of Nanocellulose
7.6.1 Production Cost
7.6.2 Mechanical Properties
7.6.3 Scalability
7.6.4 Compatibility with Cells
7.7 Future Prospects
7.8 Conclusion
References
8. Application of Nanocellulose for Wound Dressings
B.A. Aderibigbe
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types of Wounds
8.3 Nanocellulose-Based Wound Dressings
8.3.1 Hydrogels
8.3.2 Sponges
8.3.3 Nanofibers
8.3.4 Hydrocolloids
8.3.5 Films/Membranes
8.3.6 3D-Printed Wound Dressings
8.3.7 Composites
8.3.8 Other Scaffolds
8.4 Commercialized Nanocellulose-Based Wound Dressings
8.5 Future Perspective and Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
9. Use of Nanocellulose for Drug Carriers for Drug Delivery Applications
Rubai Ahmed, Swarnali Das, Jhimli Banerjee, Sovan Samanta, Sandeep Kumar Dash
and Arindam Pramanik
Abbreviations
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Strategies for Drug Delivery
9.2.1 Active Targeting Drug Delivery
9.2.2 Passive Targeting Drug Delivery
9.3 Application of Various Biomaterials for Drug Delivery
9.3.1 Synthetic Biomaterials
9.3.2 Natural Biomaterials
9.4 Different Methods Involved in Nanocellulose Synthesis
9.4.1 Mechanical Synthesis
9.4.2 Chemical Synthesis
9.4.3 Biological Synthesis
9.5 Types of Nanocellulose
9.5.1 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs)
9.5.2 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
9.5.3 Microfibrillated Cellulose (MFC)
9.5.4 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)
9.6 Different Methods Used for Drug Loading/Encapsulation of Drug in Nanocellulose
9.6.1 1D Formulation Strategies
9.6.2 2D Formulation Strategies
9.6.3 3D Formulation Strategies
9.7 Importance of Nanocellulose as Drug Carrier
9.7.1 Biodegradability and Biocompatibility
9.7.2 Toxicological Concern
9.8 Drug Delivery via Different Nanocelluloses
9.8.1 Nanocellulose Aerogels
9.8.2 pH-Responsive Hydrogels
9.8.3 Injectable Hydrogels—Implants
9.8.4 Magnetic Nanocellulose
9.9 Nanocellulose-Based Drug Delivery in Pathological Disorder
9.9.1 Inflammation
9.9.2 Cancer
9.9.3 Bone-Related Disorder
9.9.4 Pulmonary Disorder
9.9.5 Wound Healing
9.9.6 Optical-Related Disease
9.10 Commercialized and Research-Associated Nanocellulose Products Reported in Clinical Trials
9.11 Future Perspective
9.12 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
10. Preparation of Antibacterial Nanocomposite Materials Using Nanocellulose
Moumita Bishai
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Nanocellulose
10.3 Functionalization of Nanocellulose
10.4 Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposite
10.5 Properties of the Nanocomposites
10.6 Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposite Processing
10.6.1 Solution Casting
10.6.2 Melt Intercalation
10.6.3 Impregnation
10.6.4 In Situ Polymerization
10.6.5 Coating
10.6.6 Freeze Drying
10.6.7 3D Printing
10.6.8 Electrospinning
10.6.9 In Situ Composites
10.6.10 Other Methods
10.7 Antibacterial Properties of the Nanocomposite Material
10.8 Conclusions and Future Trends
References
11. Application of Nanocellulose for Treatment of Renal Failure
Prapti Chakraborty and Priyanka Ray
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Renal Disease and Its Implications
11.2.1 The Structure and Function of the Kidneys
11.2.2 Types of Renal Disease
11.2.2.1 Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)
11.2.2.2 Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
11.2.2.3 Glomerulonephritis
11.2.2.4 Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)
11.2.3 Implications of Renal Disease
11.2.3.1 Electrolyte Imbalances
11.2.3.2 Accumulation of Waste Products
11.2.3.3 Hypertension
11.2.3.4 Anemia
11.2.3.5 Bone Disease
11.2.4 Causes of Renal Disease
11.2.5 Symptoms of Renal Disease
11.2.6 Diagnosis of Renal Disease
11.3 Nanocellulose—Concept and Formulation
11.3.1 Methods of Extraction
11.3.1.1 Mechanical Extraction
11.3.1.2 Chemical Extraction
11.3.2 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs)
11.3.3 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
11.3.4 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
11.3.5 Cellulose Nanofibrils (CNFib)
11.3.6 Nanocellulose Aerogels
11.4 Kidney Targeted Drug Delivery by Nanocellulose
11.5 Conclusion
References
12. Use of Nanocellulose Hydrogels for Ophthalmic Applications
Gouranga Dutta, Debabrata Ghosh Dastidar and Abimanyu Sugumaran
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nanocellulose Overview
12.2.1 Structure, Source, and Isolation of Nanocellulose
12.2.2 Types and Properties of Nanocellulose
12.3 Nanocellulose Compatibility for Ophthalmic Applications
12.4 Nanocellulose Hydrogel
12.5 Ophthalmic Application of Nanocellulose
12.6 Conclusion and Future Aspect
References
13. Application of Nanocellulose as Implant and Grafting Materials
Shubhangi Paliwal and Anushka Lather
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Chemical as Well as the Structural Makeup of Cellulose Fibers
13.3 Cellulose—Origin, Extraction, and Sources
13.4 Isolation, Chemical Transformations, and Purification of Cellulose
13.4.1 Nanofibrillar Cellulose (NFC)
13.4.2 Cellulose Nanocrystal or CNC
13.4.3 Microcrystalline Cellulose (MCC)
13.4.4 Nanocellulose—Chemical Alterations
13.5 Application of Nanocellulose as Implant and Grafting Materials
13.6 Conclusion
References
14. Use of Nanocellulose for Dental Applications
Rupankar Ghosh, Amlan Roychowdhury and Ditipriya Hazra
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Nanocellulose versus Cellulose
14.1.2 Bacterial Nanocellulose Production
14.1.3 Plant-Based Nanocellulose Preparation
14.2 Application of Nanocellulose in Dental Science
14.2.1 BNC-Based Membrane Barrier in Guided Tissue Regeneration
14.2.2 Periodontal Disease Treatment
14.2.3 Class II Furcation Lesion Treatment
14.2.4 Oral Mucosa-Based Surgical Wound Treatment
14.2.5 Treating Canker Sore
14.2.6 Dental Pulp Tissue Treatment and Soft Tissue Reinforcement
14.2.7 Dental Root Canal Treatment
14.2.8 Chitosan-Based Hydrogel Reinforced with Oxidized Nanocellulose in the Field of Tooth Engineering
14.2.9 Pickering Emulsion-Based Oral Drug Delivery
14.3 Conclusion
References
15. Future Prospects of Bacterial Nanocellulose and Its Composites
Anbazhagan Thirumalai, Mahashweta Mitra Ghosh, Agnishwar Girigoswami and Koyeli Girigoswami
Abbreviations
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Cellulose
15.3 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)
15.3.1 BC/Natural Polymer Composites
15.3.2 BC/Water-Soluble Synthetic Polymer Nanocomposites
15.3.3 BC/Thermoplastic Nanocomposites
15.3.4 BNC-Based Electroconductive Polymer Nanocomposites
15.4 Bacterial Nanocellulose-Based Hybrid Nanocomposites
15.4.1 BNC/Metal and Metal Oxide Nanocomposites
15.4.2 Bacterial Cellulose Carbon Nanocomposites
15.5 Biomedical Applications of BNC
15.5.1 Drug Delivery
15.5.2 Biosensing
15.5.3 Wound Dressing Material
15.5.4 Antimicrobial Activity
15.5.5 Artificial Skin
15.5.6 Tissue Engineering
15.5.7 Vascular Tissue Engineering
15.5.8 Bone Tissue Engineering
15.5.9 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
15.5.10 Anticoagulant Character
15.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Index
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