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Toxic Effects of Micro and Nanoplastics

Environment, Food and Human Health

Edited by Inamuddin, Tariq Altalhi, and Virgínia Cruz Fernandes
Copyright: 2024   |   Status: Published
ISBN: 9781394238125  |  Hardcover  |  
608 pages
Price: $248 USD
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One Line Description
This book provides in-depth coverage of the sources, dispersion, life cycle assessment strategies, physico-chemical interactions, methods of analysis, toxicological investigation, and remediation strategies of micro and nanoplastics.

Audience
This book is a valuable resource for chemists and polymer scientists in various industries including plastics, fisheries, food and beverages, environmental sciences, agriculture, and medicine, as well as government policymakers.

Description
Micro- and nanoplastics are the degradation products of large plastic compounds. These degraded polymers enter into the natural environment, including air, water, and food, which leads to various significant threats to human health. The nature of these micro- and nanoplastics is persistent and consequently accumulates in the exposed person’s body. Research into microplastics has shown that these particles accumulate in various human organs and impart detrimental effects on humans. To safeguard human health, analysis and remediation strategies are necessary. This book provides a comprehensive overview in 24 chapters on the source, distribution, life cycle assessment strategies, physico-chemical interactions, methods of analysis, s investigation, and remediation strategies of micro- and nanoplastics.

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Author / Editor Details
Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in the multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of awards, including the Department of Science and Technology, India, Fast-Track Young Scientist Award, and Young Researcher of the Year Award 2020 from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published about 210 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 170 edited books with multiple well-known publishers. His current research interests include ion exchange materials, sensors for heavy metal ions, biofuel cells, supercapacitors, and bending actuators.

Tariq Altalhi, PhD, is Head of the Department of Chemistry and Vice Dean of the Science College at Taif University, Saudi Arabia. He received his PhD from the University of Adelaide, Australia in 2014. His research interests include developing advanced chemistry-based solutions for solid and liquid municipal waste management and converting plastic bags to carbon nanotubes and fly ash to efficient adsorbent material. He also researches natural extracts and their application in generating value-added products such as nanomaterials.

Virginia Cruz Fernandes, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Engineering of Porto, Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal. She obtained a Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of Porto in 2012. Her interests include toxicology, human health, and nutrition. Her research addresses the analytical process and data processing using analytics techniques. She has published 50 publications in international peer journals, eight book chapters, and received 11 awards.

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Table of Contents
Preface
1. Aging Process of Microplastics in the Environment
Sílvia D. Martinho, Virgínia Cruz Fernandes, Sónia A. Figueiredo and Cristina Delerue-Matos
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Impact of MPs on the Environment
1.3 Pristine and Aged Microplastics
1.4 Influence of Aging Processes in the Properties of MPs
1.4.1 Physical Properties
1.4.2 Chemical Properties
1.5 Simulation in the Laboratory of the Different Aging Effects
1.5.1 Radiation
1.5.2 Chemical Oxidation and Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP)
1.5.3 Mechanical Stress
1.5.4 Biodegradation
1.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
2. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Bioplastics
A. L. Tecorralco-Bobadilla, A. Vázquez-Morillas, G. González-Cardoso and P. X. Sotelo-Navarro
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Life Cycle Assessment
2.1.2 Specialized LCA Software
2.2 Purpose and Approach of this Chapter
2.3 Development of Life Cycle Assessments for Bioplastics
2.3.1 Functional Unit and Scope Definition
2.3.2 Conventional Plastics vs. Bioplastics Analyses
2.3.3 Primary Applications for Which LCA was Performed
2.3.4 Evaluation Methods and Impact Categories Analyzed
2.3.5 End of Life (EoL) Scenarios
2.4 Discussion
2.4.1 Evaluation Methods and Impact Categories
2.4.2 End of Life (EoL)
2.5 Concluding Remarks
References
3. Micro- and Nanoplastics—An Invisible Threat to Human Health
Anamika Singh, Anjali Joseph, Thyagaraju Badanavalu Madaiah and Shinomol George Kunnel
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Routes of Exposure
3.2.1 Inhalation
3.2.2 Dermal Contact
3.2.3 Ingestion
3.3 Phenomenon of Microplastics in Nourishment and Nutrients
3.3.1 Sodium Chloride
3.3.2 Marine Organisms (Crawfish, Mussel, Oyster): Techniques Used for Microplastic Identification
3.3.3 Canned and Prepackaged Foods
3.3.4 Soil Biome
3.4 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Mammalian Health
3.5 Nanoplastics and Microplastics: Effects on Environment and Marine Life
3.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References
4. Microplastics and Nanoplastics and Related Chemicals: The Physical–Chemical Interactions
Elsa Cherian, Lakshmi Mohan and Sony Elizebeth Manoj
4.1 Introduction to Micro- and Nanoplastics
4.2 Sources and Distribution of Micro- and Nanoplastics
4.3 Ecological Impacts of Micro- and Nanoplastics
4.4 Food Contamination and Human Exposure to Micro- and Nanoplastics
4.5 Toxicological Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics on Human Health
4.5.1 Sources and Routes of Exposure
4.5.1.1 Ingestion
4.5.1.2 Inhalation
4.5.1.3 Dermal Exposure
4.5.2 Toxicological Effects
4.5.2.1 Inflammation and Immune Response
4.5.2.2 Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity
4.5.2.3 Endocrine Disruption
4.6 Conclusions and Recommendations for Mitigating the Toxic Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics
4.6.1 Reduce Plastic Production and Use
4.6.2 Improving Waste Management
4.6.3 Enhance Public Awareness
4.6.4 Develop and Implement Testing Protocols
4.6.5 Future Research
References
5. Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Sources, Distribution, Behaviors, and Fate
Minoo Giyahchi and Hamid Moghimi
List of Abbreviations
5.1 Micro- and Nanoplastics: Principles and Sources
5.2 Micro- and Nanoplastic Behavior
5.2.1 Physiochemical Properties of MNPs: Toxicity and Reactivity
5.2.1.1 Petrochemical-Based Plastics
5.2.1.2 Bio-MNPs as a New Cause of Concern
5.2.1.3 Biological and Environmental Hazards of MNPs: The Effects on Biodiversity
5.3 Micro- and Nanoplastics’ Distribution and Fate: From Terrestrial and Aquatic Environments to the Human Body
5.3.1 Terrestrial Environments
5.3.2 Aquatic Environments
5.3.3 Air and Atmosphere
5.3.4 Wastewater Treatment Plants
5.3.5 Cells and Organs
5.4 The Effect of Abiotic and Biotic Factors on MNPs’ Behavior and Fate
5.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
6. Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Food
Asra Tariq and Ghaus Rizvi
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Sources of Micro-Nanoplastics Affecting Food
6.2.1 Micro-Nanoplastics in Seafood
6.2.2 Micro-Nanoplastics in Water and Beverages
6.2.3 Micro-Nanoplastics in Meat
6.2.4 Micro-Nanoplastics in Fruits and Vegetables
6.2.5 Micro-Nanoplastics in Other Food Sources
6.3 Impact of Micro-Nanoplastics
6.4 Direct Impact on Human Health
6.4.1 Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis
6.4.2 Autophagy
6.4.3 Damage to Different Body Cells
6.4.4 Inflammation
6.5 Affecting the Food Chain
6.6 Detection of Micro-Nanoplastics in Food
6.7 Conclusion
References
7. Microplastics: Properties, Effect on the Environment and Removal Methods
Anirudh Pratap Singh Raman, Pallavi Jain and Prashant Singh
7.1 An Insight Into Microplastics (MPs)
7.2 Microplastic Definitions
7.3 Properties of MPs
7.4 Primary and Secondary Microplastics
7.5 Microbeads
7.6 Impacts of MPs
7.6.1 Ecological Impacts
7.6.2 Chemical Impacts
7.6.3 Socio-Economic Impact
7.6.4 Removal of MPs
7.6.5 Chemical Method
7.6.6 Absorption and Filtration
7.6.7 Biological Method of Removal of MPs
7.7 Global Initiatives
7.7.1 United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 14)
7.8 Conclusion
References
8. Identification, Quantification, and Presence of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Beverages Around the World
Lobato-Rocha Sheila Liliana Dafne, Cruz-Salas Arely Areanely, Rodríguez-Villa Aylin Geraldine, Tapia-Fuentes Jocelyn and Álvarez-Zeferino Juan Carlos
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Water Consumption Around the World
8.1.2 Water in the Beverage Industry
8.1.3 Water Quality and Water Pollution
8.2 Methodology
8.3 Results
8.3.1 Countries where Studies were Performed
8.3.2 Techniques for Identification and Extraction of Microplastics
8.3.2.1 Selection of the Type of Beverages
8.3.2.2 Sample Preparation
8.3.2.3 Digestion
8.3.2.4 Filtration
8.3.2.5 Visual Identification and Characterization
8.3.2.6 Quality Control and Contamination Prevention
8.4 Microplastic Concentrations in Beverages
8.5 Microplastic Characterization in Beverages
8.5.1 Microplastic Sizes
8.5.2 Microplastic Types
8.5.3 Microplastic Colors
8.5.4 Microplastic Chemical Composition
8.6 Human Exposure
8.7 Conclusions
References
9. Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Terrestrial Systems
Nigina, V. Sajith and Baiju G. Nair
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Micro/Nanoplastics in Soil
9.2.1 Source of Micro/Nano Plastics in Soils
9.2.2 Effect of Micro/Nanoplastics
9.2.2.1 Effect of Micro/Nanoplastics on the Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil
9.2.2.2 Effect of Micro/Nanoplastics on Soil Microorganisms
9.2.2.3 Effect of Micro/Nanoplastics on Soil Fauna
9.2.3 Degradation and Transport of Micro/Nanoplastics
9.3 Micro/Nanoplastics in Plants
9.3.1 Source of Micro/Nanoplastics
9.3.1.1 Plastic Mulching
9.3.1.2 Packaging
9.3.1.3 Irrigation Water
9.3.1.4 Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs)
9.3.1.5 Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP)
9.3.1.6 Air-Borne
9.3.1.7 Others
9.3.2 Migration or Uptake of Micro/Nanoplastics From Soil and Atmosphere
9.3.2.1 Uptake Pathways of Micro/Nanoplastics
9.3.3 Accumulation and Translocation
9.3.4 Effect of Micro- and Nano Plastics
9.3.4.1 Inhibitory Effect
9.3.4.2 Blocking Pores or Light
9.3.4.3 Mechanical Damage to Roots
9.3.4.4 Hindering Gene Expression
9.3.4.5 Release of Additives
9.3.4.6 Adsorption or Transport of Contaminant
9.3.4.7 Alteration of Soil Properties
9.3.4.8 Effect on Soil Microbes
9.3.4.9 Stimulatory Effect
9.3.4.10 Soil Microbial Community and Root Symbionts
9.4 Micro/Nanoplastics in Terrestrial Organism
9.4.1 Effect of Micro/Nanoplastics on Terrestrial Living Things
9.4.1.1 Ingestion
9.4.1.2 Gastrointestinal Tract
9.4.1.3 Microplastics on Respiratory Pathways
9.4.1.4 Interaction of Microplastics on Gut Microbiota
9.4.1.5 Endocrine System
9.5 Conclusion
References
10. Microplastics in Cosmetics and Personal Care Products
Ana Isabel Hernandez-Soriano, Carolina Martínez-Salvador, Juan Carlos Alvarez-Zeferino, Alethia Vázquez-Morillas and M. Azahara Mesa-Jurado
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Personal Care Products (PCPs) and Cosmetics
10.1.1.1 Consumption and Categorization
10.1.1.2 Microbeads in PCPs and Cosmetics
10.1.1.3 Environmental Effects of Microplastics
10.2 Methodology
10.3 Results
10.4 Characterization of Microplastics in PCPs and Cosmetics
10.4.1 Types of Samples
10.4.2 Per Country of Origin
10.4.3 Forms of Microplastics
10.4.4 Colors of Microplastics Found in PCPs and Cosmetics
10.4.5 Sizes of Microplastics
10.4.6 Types of Polymers
10.4.7 Experimental Methods Used to Extract and Analyze Microplastics
10.4.7.1 Extraction Method
10.4.7.2 Particle Size Analysis Method
10.4.7.3 Polymer Type Analysis Methods
10.5 Interaction Between Microplastics from PCPs and Other Substances
10.6 Toxicity of Microplastics from Personal Care Products and Cosmetics
10.6.1 Toxicity of Different Types of MP
10.6.2 Effects in Different Organism’s Groups
10.6.2.1 Bacteria
10.6.2.2 Plants
10.6.2.3 Phytoplankton
10.6.2.4 Algae
10.6.2.5 Animals
10.6.2.6 Humans (Cells)
10.7 Worldwide Bans on Microbeads in PCPs and Cosmetics
10.8 Conclusions
References
11. Study on Microplastic Content in Cosmetic Products and Their Detrimental Effect on Human Health
Venkatramana Losetty, Gosu Nageswara Reddy, C. Hazarathaiah Yadav and K. Sivakumar
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Cosmetic Products in India
11.3 Source of Plastics and Microplastics
11.4 Uptake and Bio-Accumulation of Microplastics
11.5 Effect of Microplastic Exposure on Human Health
11.5.1 Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis
11.5.2 Inflammation
11.5.3 Metabolic Homeostasis
11.6 Alternatives of Microplastics in Cosmetic Products
11.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
12. Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics on Human Genome
Priyadarshi Mukherjee, Ananya Ghosal, Chayani Mukherjee, Ahana Bhaduri and Mukesh Singh
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Source of Micro- and Nanoplastics
12.2.1 Source of Micro- and Nanoplastics From the Marine Ecosystem
12.2.2 Source of Micro- and Nanoplastics From Soil Ecosystem
12.2.3 Other Sources of Micro- and Nanoplastics
12.3 Pathways Through Which Micro- and Nanoplastics Enter the Food Chain
12.3.1 Transports by Inhalation
12.3.2 Transports by Ingestion
12.3.3 Transport by Dermal Exposure
12.4 Harmful Impacts of Micro- and Nanoplastics on Human Health
12.5 Impacts of Micro- and Nanoplastics on the Genome of Humans
12.5.1 DNA Damage
12.5.2 Epigenetic Changes
12.5.3 Inflammation
12.5.4 Reproductive Health
12.5.5 Neurological Effects
12.6 Toxic Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics
12.6.1 Several Toxic Effects of Nano- and Microplastics
12.6.2 Effects on the Immune System and Inflammatory Responses
12.7 Case Study on a Small Regional Place of India (Puducherry)
12.8 Conclusion
References
13. Harmful Effects of Plastics, Microplastics, and Nanoplastics
Niharika Kulshrestha and Anjani Kumar Rai
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Generation of MPs and NPs
13.3 Techniques for MP and NP Measurement
13.3.1 Sampling
13.3.2 Flotation
13.3.3 Filtration
13.3.4 Identification of MPs and NPs in Different Environmental Conditions
13.4 Various Methods for the Degradation of Plastics
13.4.1 Chemical Degradation
13.4.2 Thermal Degradation
13.4.3 Physical Degradation
13.4.4 Biodegradation
13.4.5 Photodegradation and Photoaging
13.5 Harmful Effects of Plastics, Microplastics, and Nanoplastics
13.5.1 Effect on Gastric Health
13.5.2 Effect on Pulmonary Exposure
13.5.3 Effect on Derma
13.5.4 Harmful Effects on Human Health
13.5.5 Harmful Effects on Microorganisms
13.5.6 Harmful Effects on Sea Animals
13.5.7 Harmful Effects on Animals
13.6 Measures to Avoid the Further Extension of Harmful Effects of Plastics,
Microplastics, and Nanoplastics
13.7 Conclusions
References
14. Hazardous Effects of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Marine Environment
Smithi Vibha Toppo, Rakesh Gunasekhar, Revathi Ravind and Shinomol George Kunnel
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Fate and Sources of Microplastics
14.2.1 Primary Microplastics
14.2.2 Secondary Microplastics
14.2.2.1 Microplastics from Textiles
14.2.2.2 Microplastics from Fishing Gears
14.2.2.3 Microplastics from Food Packaging
14.2.2.4 Microplastics from Landfills
14.2.2.5 Damages caused by Plastic Pollution
14.2.3 Plastic Contamination in Agricultural Soils
14.2.3.1 Physico-Chemical Properties
14.2.3.2 Microbial Activity
14.2.3.3 Soil Erosion
14.2.4 Living Beings and Environment
14.2.5 Marine Environment
14.3 Minimizing the Microplastics in the Environment
14.3.1 Recovery/Alteration of Microplastics
14.3.2 Biology Mediated Approaches
14.4 Severance of Microplastics from Water and Sediments
14.5 Marine Microbial Strains Associated in Degrading Microplastics
14.6 Work Done in our Laboratory
14.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
15. Human Toxicity of Nano- and Microplastics
Arely A. Cruz Salas, Maribel Velasco Perez, Ana Laura Tecorralco Bobadilla, Alethia Vázquez Morillas and Rosa María Espinosa Valdemar
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Basic Toxicology Concepts
15.3 Challenges and Opportunities for Evaluation of Toxicity in Humans
15.3.1 Animal Studies
15.3.1.1 Animal Welfare and Prediction of Human Toxicity from Animal Models
15.3.1.2 Characteristics of Animal Studies
15.3.2 Alternative Methods to Animal Testing
15.3.2.1 Cell- and Tissue-Based Toxicity Assays
15.3.2.2 In Silico or Computational Modeling
15.3.2.3 Tissue Engineering
15.3.2.4 Tissue- and Organ-in-Chip Engineering
15.3.3 Human Dosing Studies
15.4 Toxicity Studies With Nano- and Microplastics
15.5 Toxicity of Nano- and Microplastic Reported in the Literature
15.5.1 Particle Uptake or Accumulation Studies
15.5.1.1 Human Cells
15.5.1.2 Human Fluids
15.5.1.3 Mice
15.5.1.4 Mice Cells
15.5.2 Cell Viability
15.5.3 Stress Response
15.5.4 Cancer
15.5.5 Genotoxic Effects
15.5.6 Reproductive System
15.6 Conclusions
References
16. Plastic-Related Chemicals: Occurrence in Environment and Ecotoxicological Impacts
Diana Rede, Cristina Delerue-Matos and Virgínia Cruz Fernandes
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Plasticizers
16.2.1 Presence and Accumulation of PAEs in the Environment
16.2.2 Ecotoxicological Effects of PAEs
16.2.3 Human Exposure to PAEs
16.3 Flame Retardants
16.3.1 Presence and Accumulation of Flame Retardants in the Environment
16.3.2 Ecotoxicological Effects of Flame Retardants
16.4 Human Exposure to Flame Retardants
16.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
17. The Invisible Threat: Micronanoplastic Materials
Anupama Rajput, Shagufta Jabin, Sadiqa Abbas and Prachika Rajput
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Microplastic and Toxic Chemicals
17.2.1 Heavy Metals
17.3 Organic Pollutants
17.3.1 Organic Contaminants
17.3.1.1 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
17.3.1.2 Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
17.3.1.3 Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs)
17.3.1.4 Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) and its Related Compounds
17.4 Microplastic Toxic Chemical Interaction
17.4.1 Environment
17.4.1.1 Soil
17.4.1.2 Atmosphere
17.4.1.3 Aquatic Environment
17.5 Toxicity to Human
17.6 Toxicity to Environment
17.7 Impact of MiNaPs on Marine Environment and Terrestrial Habitat
17.8 Conclusion
References
18. Comparative Analysis of the Toxicity of Micro- and Nanoplastics along with Nanoparticles on the Ecosystem
Pooja Mohapatra, Lipsa Shubhadarshinee, Bigyan Ranjan Jali, Aruna Kumar Barick and Priyaranjan Mohapatra
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Literature Survey
18.3 Exposure to Ecosystem and Translocation
18.3.1 Sources and Distribution
18.3.1.1 Nanoparticles
18.3.1.2 Micro- and Nanoplastics
18.3.2 Toxicity in Human Health
18.3.3 Toxicity in Environment: Land, Water, and Air
18.3.4 Ecotoxicity in Aquatic Organisms
18.4 Challenges and Precautions
18.5 Conclusions
References
19. Methods for Micro- and Nanoplastic Analysis
Veronice Slusarski-Santana, Melissa Longen Panatto, Fernanda Rengel dos Passos, Keiti Lopes Maestre, Carina Contini Triques, Leila Denise Fiorentin-Ferrari and Mônica Lady Fiorese
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Micro- and Nanoplastics: Source, Occurrence, and Risks
19.3 Pre-Treatment of Micro- and Nanoplastic Samples
19.3.1 Sample Digestion
19.3.2 Sample Pre-Concentration
19.3.3 Separation of Micro- and Nanoplastics
19.4 Methods for Characterization, Identification, and Quantification of Micro- and Nanoplastics
19.4.1 Light Scattering Characterization Methods
19.4.2 Characterization, Identification, and Quantification Methods by Optical Microscopy
19.4.2.1 Stereoscopic Microscope
19.4.2.2 Conventional Light Microscopy
19.4.2.3 Fluorescence Microscopy
19.4.2.4 Polarized Light Microscopy
19.4.2.5 Confocal Microscopy
19.4.3 Characterization and Identification Methods by Electron and Scanning Microscopy
19.4.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
19.4.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy With Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS)
19.4.3.3 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM)
19.4.3.4 Focused Ion Beam Microscopy (FIB)
19.4.3.5 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM)
19.4.3.6 Near Field Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM)
19.4.3.7 Transmission Electronic Microscopy (TEM)
19.4.3.8 High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM)
19.4.4 Identification and Quantification Methods by Spectroscopy
19.4.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
19.4.4.2 Raman Spectroscopy (RS or RAMAN)
19.4.4.3 Imaging Spectroscopy—Hyperspectral Images (HSI)
19.4.4.4 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
19.4.5 Identification and Quantification Methods by Thermal Analysis, Gas Chromatography, and Mass Spectrometry
19.4.6 Quantification Methods by Counting, Weighing, Absorbance, and Turbidity
19.5 Conclusions
References
20. New Approaches for Micro(Nano)Plastics Analysis
Melkamu Biyana Regasa
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Global Plastic Production and Its Waste Generation
20.3 Sources and Health Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics
20.4 Sample Collection Methods
20.5 Emerging Analytical Approaches
20.6 Single Analytical Methods
20.6.1 Microscopic Techniques
20.6.2 Thermal Techniques
20.6.3 Spectroscopic Techniques
20.6.4 Electroanalytical Techniques
20.7 Hyphenated Analytical Techniques
20.7.1 Chromatographic-Based Hyphenated Techniques
20.7.2 Spectroscopic-Based Hyphenated Techniques
20.8 Current Trends and Future Perspectives
20.9 Conclusions
References
21. Enzyme-Catalyzed Biodegradation of Micro- and Nanoplastics
Masoud Salehipour, Shahla Rezaei, Ali Motaharian, Shokoufeh Nikpour, Mohammad Shaban and Mehdi Mogharabi-Manzari
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Degradation of Plastics
21.2.1 Chemical Degradation
21.2.2 Photodegradation
21.2.3 Biodegradation
21.3 Enzyme-Based Degradation of Plastics
21.3.1 Mechanism of Degradation
21.3.2 Esterase
21.3.3 Lipase
21.3.4 Cutinase
21.4 Conclusion
References
22. Remediation Strategies for Micro(Nano)Plastics
Aylin Geraldine Rodríguez Villa, Sheila Liliana Dafne Lobato Rocha, Jocelyn Tapia Flores, Juan Carlos Álvarez Zeferino and Arely Areanely Cruz Salas
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Methods for the Removal of Micro(Nano)Plastics from the Environment
22.2.1 Physical Removal Methods
22.2.1.1 Microplastics Adsorption
22.2.1.2 Microplastics Used in Adsorption Removal Experiments
22.2.1.3 Influence of Morphology in Microplastic Removal
22.2.1.4 Influence of Concentration of Adsorbent and Microplastics on Removal
22.2.1.5 Influence of Electrostatic Interactions on Microplastic Removal
22.2.1.6 Influence of Ions on Microplastic Removal
22.2.1.7 Influence of Dissolved Organic Matter on Microplastic Removal
22.2.1.8 Reaction Kinetics in Microplastic Removal
22.2.1.9 Adsorption as a Feasible Option for Microplastic Removal
22.2.2 Filtration Removal
22.2.2.1 Sand Filtration
22.2.2.2 Ultrafiltration
22.2.2.3 Membrane Filtration
22.2.3 Chemical Removal Methods
22.2.3.1 Coagulation and Flocculation
22.2.4 Oxidation Processes
22.2.4.1 Degradation of Nano and/or Microplastics by Fenton and Photo-Fenton Processes
22.2.5 Biological Processes for Remediation of Microplastics
22.2.5.1 Removal by Microorganisms
22.2.5.2 Preparation of the Microcosm
22.2.5.3 Identification of Degrader Microorganisms
22.2.5.4 Sample Preparation
22.2.5.5 Microplastic Removal Process
22.2.5.6 Determination of the Removal of Microplastics by Microorganisms
22.2.5.7 Main Findings
22.2.5.8 Removal by Larger Organisms
22.3 Comparison of Different Removal Methods
22.4 Prevention and Reduction of Microplastic Pollution
22.5 Conclusions
References
23. Removal of Microplastics and Nanoplastics From Water
J.E. Castanheiro, P.A. Mourão and I. Cansado
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Sponge/Aerogel Materials to Remove MPs and NPs
23.3 Materials With Metals to Remove MPs and NPs
23.4 Biochar as Material to Remove the MPs and NPs
23.5 Additional Materials to Remove MPs and NPs
23.6 Conclusion
References
24. Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Aquatic Systems
Alsha Subash and Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian
24.1 Introduction
24.2 A Theoretical Assessment of MP and NP Migration and Fate Aquatic Environment
24.2.1 Migration Via Land to Freshwater to Ocean
24.3 Pollution in Marine Environment
24.3.1 Toxicity Assessment of MPs in Aquatic Environment
24.3.2 Toxicity Assessment of NPs in Aquatic Environment
24.4 Toxicity Comparison of MPs and NPs
24.5 Regulatory Policy
24.6 Environmental Implication and Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Index

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