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Submit a ProposalLubricants from Renewable Feedstocks
 | Subhalaxmi Pradhan, Lalit Prasad, Chandu Madankar, and S. N. Naik Copyright: 2024 | Status: Published ISBN: 9781394172535 | Hardcover | 508 pages Price: $225 USD  |
One Line Description
Written and edited by a team of industry experts, this exciting new volume covers the field of renewable lubricants, their processing, optimization, end-use application, and their future potential.
Audience
Engineers, scientists, students, researchers, and other industry professionals in chemistry, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering and materials science, stakeholders working in the field of biolubricants and tribological sectors, professionals working in the field of extraction technique and biolubricant production
Engineers, scientists, students, researchers, and other industry professionals in chemistry, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering and materials science, stakeholders working in the field of biolubricants and tribological sectors, professionals working in the field of extraction technique and biolubricant production
Description
Biolubricants are a viable alternative to synthetic lubricants because they are produced from organic materials such as plant oils, waste oils and by-products. Renewable biolubricants are the subject of research because of their biodegradability, eco-friendliness, and favorable socioeconomic consequences to counteract imitations of synthetic lubricants. Biolubricants have thus emerged as an ideal substitute for mineral oil-based lubricants, as significant economic and environmental acceptability has been received over the last few decades and it has been estimated that there would be a further steady growth in its demand over the next few decades. Furthermore, biolubricants high-quality lubricating properties, high load carrying ability, long service life, and fast biodegradability have expanded the recent interest. These lubricants can be derived from different sources of vegetable oils, non-edible oils, waste cooking oils (WCO) and microbe-derived oils. Among all these sources, the use of WCOs and microbe-derived oils have received immense interest and provide superior quality biolubricants.
This outstanding new volume covers the prospects and processing of feedstocks for biolubricants, extraction techniques, new advancements in the field of bio-based lubricants, epoxide lubricants, hydrogenated lubricants, microbial-based biolubricants, nano-biolubricants, polyester-based biolubricants, lubricants from waste oils and waste materials, its economic and environmental acceptability and biorefinery approaches. The book will be helpful to industry professionals and engineers of all types, students, and other stakeholders working in the field of lubricant, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering and material science, tribological sectors and biorefinery industries. It will also be of great interest to new start-up companies working in the area of processing feedstocks for biolubricant production and end use application, biorefineries, valorization of biolubricant waste, and in the recycling industries.
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Biolubricants are a viable alternative to synthetic lubricants because they are produced from organic materials such as plant oils, waste oils and by-products. Renewable biolubricants are the subject of research because of their biodegradability, eco-friendliness, and favorable socioeconomic consequences to counteract imitations of synthetic lubricants. Biolubricants have thus emerged as an ideal substitute for mineral oil-based lubricants, as significant economic and environmental acceptability has been received over the last few decades and it has been estimated that there would be a further steady growth in its demand over the next few decades. Furthermore, biolubricants high-quality lubricating properties, high load carrying ability, long service life, and fast biodegradability have expanded the recent interest. These lubricants can be derived from different sources of vegetable oils, non-edible oils, waste cooking oils (WCO) and microbe-derived oils. Among all these sources, the use of WCOs and microbe-derived oils have received immense interest and provide superior quality biolubricants.
This outstanding new volume covers the prospects and processing of feedstocks for biolubricants, extraction techniques, new advancements in the field of bio-based lubricants, epoxide lubricants, hydrogenated lubricants, microbial-based biolubricants, nano-biolubricants, polyester-based biolubricants, lubricants from waste oils and waste materials, its economic and environmental acceptability and biorefinery approaches. The book will be helpful to industry professionals and engineers of all types, students, and other stakeholders working in the field of lubricant, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering and material science, tribological sectors and biorefinery industries. It will also be of great interest to new start-up companies working in the area of processing feedstocks for biolubricant production and end use application, biorefineries, valorization of biolubricant waste, and in the recycling industries.
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Author / Editor Details
Subhalaxmi Pradhan, PhD, is an associate professor at Division of Chemistry, School of Basic Sciences, Galgotias University Greater Noida, UP. She has three years of postdoctoral experience from the University of Saskatchewan, Canada and IIT Delhi and 12 years of experience in research and teaching. She has three patents and has published over 40 research papers in scientific journals. She has also edited the book, Biofuel Extraction Techniques, available from Wiley-Scrivener.
Subhalaxmi Pradhan, PhD, is an associate professor at Division of Chemistry, School of Basic Sciences, Galgotias University Greater Noida, UP. She has three years of postdoctoral experience from the University of Saskatchewan, Canada and IIT Delhi and 12 years of experience in research and teaching. She has three patents and has published over 40 research papers in scientific journals. She has also edited the book, Biofuel Extraction Techniques, available from Wiley-Scrivener.
Lalit Prasad has a PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India. Presently he is serving as a professor of chemistry at the School of Basic Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India. He has more than a decade teaching and research experience and has published more than 30 research papers book chapters in scientific journals and books.
Chandu Madankar, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Oils, Oleochemicals and Surfactants Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India. He earned his PhD in 2015 from IIT Delhi and was awarded the Canadian Commonwealth Fellowship in the Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Canada. He has eight years of experience of research and teaching and has published more than 25 research papers in scientific journals.
S.N. Naik, PhD, is an emeritus professor at the Centre for Rural Development and Technology, IIT Delhi, India. He has more than 35 years of experience in research and teaching. He has several prestigious awards and has published nearly 250 papers in scientific journals. He also has seven patents to his credit and has authored three books.
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Table of Contents
Preface
1. Prospectus of Renewable Resources for Lubricant Production
Suruchi Damle and Chandu S. Madankar
Abbreviations
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History
1.3 Background of Biolubricants
1.4 Classification of Lubricants
1.4.1 Types of Base Oil Used
1.4.1.1 Synthetic Oils
1.4.1.2 Mineral Oil
1.4.1.3 Natural Oils
1.4.2 Physical State of Lubricant
1.5 Functions of a Good Lubricant
1.6 Renewable Sources for Biolubricant Manufacture
1.6.1 Jatropha Oil
1.6.2 Karanja Oil
1.6.3 Palm Oil
1.6.4 Rapeseed Oil
1.6.5 Castor Oil
1.6.6 Sunflower Oil
1.6.7 Soyabean Oil
1.6.8 Canola Oil
1.6.9 Coconut Oil
1.7 Physicochemical Properties of Bioderived Lubricants
1.7.1 Viscosity
1.7.2 Viscosity Index
1.7.3 Flash Point
1.7.4 Pour Point
1.7.5 Oxidation Stability
1.8 Chemical Modification of Vegetable Oils for Manufacturing Biobased Lubricants
1.8.1 Esterification/Transesterification
1.8.2 Partial/Selective Hydrogenation
1.8.3 Epoxidation
1.8.4 Estolide Formation/Oligomerization
1.8.5 Hydroformylation
1.8.6 Friedel Craft Alkylation
1.8.7 Ene-Reaction
1.8.8 Radical Addition Reaction
1.8.9 Acyloxylation
1.8.10 Metathesis
1.8.11 Advanced Raw Materials and Catalysts for Biolubricant Manufacture
1.8.11.1 Sesquiterpenes as Renewable Raw Materials for Base Oils
1.8.11.2 Iso-Stearic Acids
1.8.11.3 Enzymatic Catalyzed Biolubricants
1.8.11.4 Perfluoropolyalkylethers
1.8.11.5 Fatty Acid Isomerization Catalysts
1.9 Characteristics of Biobased Lubricants
1.9.1 Carbon Chain Length
1.9.2 Types of Fatty Acids
1.9.3 Polarity
1.10 Additives
1.10.1 Antioxidants
1.10.2 Detergents and Dispersants
1.10.3 Viscosity Modifiers
1.10.4 Nanoparticles
1.10.5 Pour Point Depressants
1.10.6 Corrosion Inhibitors
1.10.7 Extreme Pressure Additives and Anti-Wear Additives
1.11 Biolubricant Applications
1.12 Biodegradability and Ecotoxicity of Biolubricants
1.13 New Technology Developed for Manufacture of Biolubricants Based on Renewable Resources
1.13.1 Waste Oil/Fats
1.13.2 Microalgae
1.13.3 Fish Oil
1.13.4 Genetically Modified Oils
1.13.5 Synthetic Esters
1.14 Merits and Demerits
1.15 Scope and Challenges
1.16 Conclusion
References
2. Extraction of Ester-Based Biolubricants from Vegetable Oils
Anupama Sharma, Subhalaxmi Pradhan, Pinki Chakraborty and Lalit Prasad
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Prospects of Vegetable Oils in Context of Lubricant
2.3 Edible Oils as Biolubricant
2.4 Nonedible Oils as Biolubricant
2.5 Physicochemical Properties of Oils to Act as Lubricant
2.5.1 Viscosity
2.5.2 Viscosity Index
2.5.3 Flash Point and Fire Point
2.5.4 Cloud Point and Pour Point
2.5.5 Oxidation Stability
2.6 Production Methodologies Involved in Ester-Based Lubricants
2.6.1 Base Catalyzed for Transesterification
2.6.2 Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification
2.6.3 Enzyme-Catalyzed Transesterification
2.7 Chemical Modification and Biodegradability of Vegetable Oils
2.7.1 Transesterification
2.7.2 Hydrogenation
2.7.3 Epoxidation
2.8 Characterization Techniques of Ester-Based Lubricants
2.9 Challenges and Shortcomings of Vegetable Oils as Biolubricants
2.10 Factors Affecting Biobased Lubricants
2.10.1 Free Fatty Acid Content in Vegetable Oil
2.10.2 Types of Alcohols
2.10.3 Types of Catalysts and Their Concentrations
2.10.4 Reaction Temperature and Rate of Reaction
2.10.5 Alcohol to Oil Ratio
2.11 Hydrolytic Stability and Low-Temperature Properties—Role of Additives or Nanomaterials in Improvement of these Properties
2.12 Economic and Environmental Acceptability of Ester-Based Lubricants
2.13 Current Research and Development for Minimizing the Challenges
2.14 Conclusion
References
3. Biobased Epoxide Lubricants
Akash Kumar, Radha Gupta, Manish Rawat and Sahil Kohli
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Broad Categorization of Lubricants
3.2.1 Lubricating Oils or Liquid Lubricants
3.2.1.1 Animal and Vegetable Oils
3.2.1.2 Mineral or Petroleum-Based Oils
3.2.1.3 Blended Oils
3.2.2 Semisolid Lubricants or Greases
3.2.3 Solid Lubricants
3.3 Biobased Lubricants
3.3.1 Advantages
3.3.1.1 Low Toxicity
3.3.1.2 Spill Remediation
3.3.1.3 Superior Lubricity
3.3.1.4 Renewable and Farmer Friendly
3.3.2 Disadvantages
3.3.2.1 Oxidative Instability
3.3.2.2 High Pour Point
3.3.2.3 Price
3.3.2.4 Difficult to Recycle
3.4 Biobased Epoxide Lubricants
3.5 Modification and Application of Biobased Epoxy Lubricant
3.5.1 Biobased Epoxide-Diamine Coatings
3.5.2 Bio Oil as well as Biochar Loadings Over Epoxy Material
3.5.3 Lubricants Derived from Castor Oil’s Fatty Acids with a Biobased Origin
3.5.4 Nanocomposites Toughened with Acrylated Epoxidized Castor Oil and Diglycidyl Ether of Bisphenol A
3.5.5 Passion Fruit as well as Moringa Oils and Their Epoxy-Based New Hydraulic Biolubricants
3.5.6 Biolubricants Originated from Enhanced Oxidation Stability of Waste Cooking Oil and Low-Temperature Properties: (2015)
3.5.7 Preparation and Tribological Studies of Green Lubricant Epoxidized Palm Stearin Methyl Ester
3.5.8 Preparation of Biolubricant Derived from Epoxy Canola Oil using Sulfated Ti-SBA-15 Catalyst
3.6 Physiochemical Characteristics of the Epoxide-Based Lubricants
3.6.1 Chemical Composition
3.6.2 Viscosity
3.6.3 Drop Point
3.6.4 Load-Carrying Capacity
3.6.5 Water Resistance
3.6.6 Corrosion Protection
3.6.7 Adhesion
3.6.8 Oxidation Stability
3.6.9 Standard for Validation
3.7 Environmental Acceptability and Economic Importance
3.7.1 Environmental Acceptability
3.7.1.1 Renewable and Sustainable
3.7.1.2 Biodegradable
3.7.1.3 Lower Toxicity
3.7.2 Economic Importance
3.7.2.1 Energy Efficiency
3.7.2.2 Reduced Maintenance and Downtime
3.7.2.3 Market Opportunities
3.8 Future Prospects
3.9 Conclusion
References
4. Biobased Hydrogenated Lubricants
Harshita Shakya, Lalit Prasad, Subhalaxmi Pradhan,
Pooja Agarwal and Diwakar Chauhan
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Different Types of Oil and Fats
4.2.1 Saturated Fats
4.2.2 Unsaturated Fats
4.2.3 Trans Fats
4.3 Processing Techniques for Oils and Fats
4.4 Microalgae Oils: Some Considerations as Lubricants
4.5 Hydrogenated and Hydrogenation Lubricants
4.5.1 Hydrogenation of Alkene
4.5.2 Use of Ru-Supported Catalysts for the Hydrotreatment of Waste Cooking Oil
4.5.3 Production of Hydrogenated Lubricants from Biomass
4.5.4 Factors Affecting Synthesis of Hydrogenated Lubricants
4.5.4.1 Feedstock Composition
4.5.4.2 Hydrogen Source and Pressure
4.5.4.3 Catalyst Type and Concentration
4.5.4.4 Temperature and Reaction Time
4.5.4.5 Posttreatment Processes
4.5.5 Applications of Hydrogenated Lubricants
4.5.5.1 Automotive Industry
4.5.5.2 Aerospace Industry
4.5.5.3 Industrial Machinery
4.5.5.4 Food Industry
4.5.5.5 Medical Industry
4.5.6 Industrial Application
4.5.6.1 Agriculture and Chemical Industries
4.5.6.2 Industries of Petroleum Refining
4.6 Lubricants
4.7 Types of Lubricants
4.7.1 Mineral Oil Lubricants
4.7.2 Synthetic Oil Lubricants
4.7.3 Biodegradable Lubricants
4.7.4 Vegetable Oil Lubricants
4.7.5 Silicone Lubricants
4.7.6 Grease Lubricants
4.7.7 Graphite Lubricants
4.7.8 Aqueous Lubricants
4.8 Biolubricant
4.8.1 Vegetable Oil-Based Biolubricants
4.8.2 Animal Fat-Based Biolubricants
4.8.3 Synthetic Ester-Based Biolubricants
4.8.4 Polyalkylene Glycol (PAG)-Based Biolubricants
4.8.5 Water-Based Biolubricants
4.8.6 Biobased Hydraulic Fluids
4.9 Physicochemical Properties of Biolubricant and Reference Lubricant
4.9.1 Hydrolytic Stability
4.9.2 Viscosity
4.9.3 Thermooxidative Stability
4.9.4 Pour Point
4.9.5 Ecotoxicity
4.9.6 Biodegradability
4.9.7 Flash Point
4.9.8 Friction and Wear Properties
4.10 Catalyst
4.10.1 Homogeneous Catalysts
4.10.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts
4.11 Production of Biolubricant Using Conventional Catalyst
4.12 Transesterification of Vegetable Oils or Animal Fats
4.13 The Used Oil as Biolubricants
4.14 Using Additives to Enhance the Lubricant’s Qualities
4.15 Applications
4.15.1 Food Processing
4.15.2 Marine Industry
4.15.3 Wind Turbines
4.15.4 Automotive Industry
4.15.5 Aerospace Industry
4.16 Use of Vegetable Oil without Modification
4.17 Reaction Pathways for Preparation of Biolubricants
4.18 Modifications
4.19 Production of Biolubricants
4.20 Biolubricants and the Environment
4.21 National Policy on Biofuels (2022 Amendment)
4.21.1 The National Policy on Biofuels has Undergone Significant Modifications, which have been Approved
4.21.2 Key Aspects of the Biofuels National Policy
4.21.3 Standards of Excellence and Ongoing Development for Biofuels
4.22 COVID-19 Impact on Biolubricants
4.22.1 Recent Development
4.22.2 Market Analysis and Size
4.22.3 Insights on the Market for Biolubricants
4.22.4 Segmentation and Market Scope
4.23 Conclusion
4.24 Future Prospects
References
5. Microbial-Based Biolubricants
Lovlish Gupta, Monika Chauhan, Ajay Kumar and Diwakar Chauhan
Abbreviations
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Developmental Methods for Microbial-Based Biolubricants
5.2.1 Microbial Feasibility for Biolubricant Production
5.2.2 Biolubricant Production by Esterification and Transesterification Processes
5.2.3 Biolubricant Production by Fermentation Processes
5.2.4 Fermentation of Microbial Biomass
5.3 Principle and Purpose of Microbial-Based Biolubricants
5.4 Physicochemical Properties
5.4.1 Viscosity and Viscosity Index
5.4.2 Lubricity
5.4.3 Pour Point
5.4.4 Stability
5.4.4.1 Oxidative Stability
5.4.4.2 Hydraulic Stability
5.5 Applications of SCO and Microbial-Based Biolubricants
5.6 Conclusion
References
6. Nanobiolubricants
Trinath Biswal and Prafulla K. Sahoo
List of Abbreviations
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biolubricants and Additive Nanoparticles from Nanobiolubricants
6.2.1 Synthesis of Biolubricants from Plant Oils through Chemical Modification
6.2.2 Impact of Biolubricants on Environment
6.2.3 Benefits and Properties of Biolubricant and Nanoadditives for the Development of Nanobiolubricants
6.2.4 Advantages of Biolubricants/Nanobiolubricants
6.2.5 Disadvantages of Biolubricants/Nanobiolubricants
6.3 Impact of Nanoparticles in Biolubricants
6.4 Kinds of Nanoparticle Additive for Preparation of Nanobiolubricants
6.4.1 Metals
6.4.2 Metal Oxide
6.4.3 Metal Sulphides
6.4.4 Carbon-Based Nanoparticles
6.4.5 Nanocomposites
6.4.6 Rare Earth-Based Materials
6.4.7 The Polyvit Nanoparticle Additive
6.5 Different Methods of Chemical Modification for Nanobiolubricants
6.5.1 Modification of Nanobiolubricants through Esterification of Vegetable Oil
6.5.2 Chemical Modification of Vegetable Oils Using Trimethylol Propane
6.5.2.1 Transesterification
6.5.2.2 Hydrolysis
6.6 Tribological Properties of the Nanobiolubricants
6.6.1 Tribological Mechanisms of Nanobiolubrication
6.6.2 Factors Influencing the Tribological Properties of Nanobiolubricants
6.6.2.1 Effect of Nanoparticle Size
6.6.2.2 Effect of Morphology of the NPs
6.6.2.3 Effect of Surface Functionalization
6.6.2.4 Effect of Concentration of the NPs
6.7 Limitations or Drawbacks of Nanolubricants
6.8 Role of Some Advanced Catalysts during the Production of Nanobiolubricants
6.9 Conclusion and Further Work
References
7. Green Nanofluids: Recent Advances and Applications
Abhishek Bhardwaj, Shashank Sharma, Kuldip Dwivedi and Kalpana Singh
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Synthesis of Nanofluids
7.2.1 One/Single Step
7.2.2 Two/Double Step
7.3 Stability of GNFs
7.4 Thermophysical Properties
7.5 Effect of Temperature
7.6 Applications of Green Nanofluids
7.6.1 Thermal Applications
7.6.2 Machining
7.6.3 Solar Panels and Solar Collector
7.6.4 Safety
7.6.5 Performance Analysis of Thermal Systems
7.7 Conclusion
References
8. Polyester-Based Biolubricants
Susmita S. Paranjpe and Chandu S. Madankar
Abbreviations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 History
8.3 Raw Materials Used for Polyester Biolubricant Production
8.3.1 Alcohols
8.3.2 Acids
8.4 Modifications of Neopentyl Polyols to Biolubricant Base Stock
8.5 Chemical Synthesis of Polyol Esters
8.5.1 Scale Up Process for Polyester Biolubricants
8.5.2 Unit Operations Involved in Synthesis of Polyester-Based Biolubricants
8.6 Enzymatic Synthesis of Polyol Esters
8.6.1 Using Palm Oil Fatty Acids
8.6.2 Using Levulinic Acid
8.6.3 Using Microbial Lipids
8.6.4 Using Rapeseed Oil
8.6.5 Using Castor Oil an Soyabean Oil
8.7 Neopentyl Polyol Esters for Biolubricants
8.7.1 Modifications with TMP
8.7.2 Modifications with PE
8.8 Characterization of Polyol Esters
8.8.1 Pyrrolysis GC-MS
8.8.2 Thermal Analysis
8.8.3 NMR Spectroscopy
8.8.4 Infrared Spectroscopy
8.9 Properties of Polyol Esters
8.9.1 Viscosity
8.9.2 Volatility
8.9.3 Pour Point and Viscosity Index
8.9.4 Tribological Properties
8.9.5 Thermal and Oxidative Stability
8.10 Applications of Polyester-Based Biolubricants
8.10.1 Aviation Turbine Oils
8.10.2 Fire Resistance
8.10.3 Refrigeration Compressor
8.10.4 Metal Working Fluids
8.11 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
9. Estolide-Based Biolubricants
Prasad Sanap, Deepak Sonawane, Rohan Thakur, Santoshi Agrawal and Amit Pratap
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Synthesis and Mechanism of Estolides
9.2.1 Concept of Capping
9.2.2 Estolides from Triglycerides
9.2.3 Estolides from Unsaturated Fatty Acids
9.2.4 Estolides from Hydroxy Fatty Acids
9.2.5 Estolides from Epoxy Fatty Acids
9.2.6 Enzymatic Catalysis
9.2.7 Purification of Estolides
9.2.8 Esterification of Estolide Fatty Acid
9.3 Structure Elucidation
9.3.1 Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy
9.3.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
9.4 Basic Physiochemical and Tribological Properties
9.4.1 Pour Point
9.4.2 Kinematic Viscosity and Viscosity Index
9.4.3 Oxidative Stability
9.4.4 Lubricity
9.4.5 Flash Point
9.5 Applications and Market Prospects
9.6 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
10. Lubricant from Waste Cooking Oil: In-Depth Analysis
Shantanu Mukherjee, Tishar Chandar, Subhalaxmi Pradhan and Lalit Prasad
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Petroleum-Based Lubricants
10.3 Prospects of Biolubricant
10.4 Need for Recycling of Waste Cooking Oil
10.5 Comparison of Waste Cooking Oil with Neat Oil
10.6 Application of Waste Cooking Oil
10.7 Purification of Waste Cooking Oil
10.9 Relationship between Structure and Physicochemical Properties
10.10 Different Modifications Reaction
10.10.1 Modification in the Carboxyl Groups
10.10.1.1 Esterification Reaction
10.10.1.2 Transesterification Reaction
10.10.1.3 Estolide
10.10.2 Modification in Fatty Acid Chain
10.10.2.1 Epoxidation Reaction
10.10.2.2 Ring Opening Reaction
10.10.2.3 Other Reaction
10.11 Additives Used in Biolubricants
10.11.1 Metal Nanoparticles as Additives
10.11.2 Nanocarbon Material
10.12 Conclusion
References
11. Managing Waste by Generation of Lubricants from Waste Oils
Adhidesh S. Kumawat
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Background and Motivation
11.1.2 Scope of the Chapter
11.1.3 Importance of Waste Oil Management
11.1.3.1 Environmental Impacts
11.1.3.2 Public Health Concerns
11.1.3.3 Resource Conservation
11.1.3.4 Circular Economy and Sustainability
11.2 Waste Oil Generation and Collection
11.2.1 Sources of Waste Oils
11.2.1.1 Automotive Sector
11.2.1.2 Industrial Sector
11.2.1.3 Marine Sector
11.2.1.4 Agriculture Sector
11.2.1.5 Aviation Sector
11.2.1.6 Railway Sector
11.2.1.7 Household and Do-It-Yourself (DIY) Activities
11.2.1.8 Commercial and Institutional Facilities
11.2.1.9 Transformer Oils
11.2.1.10 Food Industry
11.2.2 Collection Methods and Challenges
11.2.3 Waste Oil Classification and Characterization
11.3 Waste Oil Processing and Regeneration Technologies
11.3.1 Chemical Treatment
11.3.1.1 Acid-Clay Treatment
11.3.1.2 Solvent Extraction
11.3.1.3 Adsorption
11.3.2 Physical Treatment
11.3.2.1 Filtration
11.3.2.2 Centrifugation
11.3.2.3 Vacuum Distillation
11.3.3 Advanced Technologies
11.3.3.1 Membrane Filtration
11.3.3.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
11.3.3.3 Ionic Liquids
11.3.4 Comparison of Regeneration Technologies
11.4 Catalytic Materials for Waste Oil Conversion to Lubricants
11.4.1 Solid Acid Catalysts
11.4.2 Transition Metal Catalysts
11.4.3 Acid–Base Bifunctional Catalysts
11.4.4 Modified Zeolites and Mesoporous Materials
11.4.5 Hybrid and Composite Catalysts
11.4.6 Zeolite-Based Catalysts
11.4.7 Supported Catalysts
11.4.8 Nonprecious Metal Catalysts
11.4.9 Mesoporous Silica Catalysts
11.5 Future Directions and Concluding Remarks
11.5.1 Research and Development Prospects
11.5.1.1 Advanced Materials for Adsorption and Membrane Filtration
11.5.1.2 Optimization of Process Parameters
11.5.1.3 Hybrid and Integrated Processes
11.5.1.4 Green Solvents and Technologies
11.5.1.5 Life Cycle Assessment and Sustainability
11.6 Conclusion
References
12. Catalysts Used in Biolubricants Production
Pavan Kumar Gupta, Deshal Yadav, Sudipta Datta, Shweta Kumari, Shiva Kumar Saw and Gajanan Sahu
Abbreviations
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Biolubricants
12.3 Green Biolubricants
12.3.1 Castor Oil
12.3.2 Single-Cell Oils from Oleaginous Microorganisms
12.4 Properties of Biolubricants
12.4.1 Viscosity and Viscosity Index
12.4.2 Cloud Point
12.4.3 Pour Point
12.4.4 Flash Point and Fire Point
12.4.5 Oxidative Stability
12.4.6 Iodine Value
12.4.7 Corrosion
12.4.8 Total Acid Number
12.4.9 Biodegradability
12.5 Application of Biolubricants
12.5.1 Engine Oils
12.5.2 Hydraulic Oils
12.5.3 Compressor Oils
12.5.4 Metalworking Oils
12.5.5 Transmission Oils
12.5.6 Chainsaw Oils
12.5.7 Insulating Oils
12.6 Feedstocks for Biolubricants Synthesis
12.6.1 Edible Oils/Vegetable Oils
12.6.2 Nonedible Oils
12.6.3 Waste Cooking Oils
12.6.4 Microbial-Derived Oils
12.7 Chemical Modification Methods for Biolubricant Synthesis
12.7.1 Esterification/Transesterification
12.7.2 Hydrogenation
12.7.3 Epoxidation
12.7.4 Estolide Formation
12.8 Catalysts Used for Biolubricants Synthesis
12.8.1 Homogeneous Alkali Catalyst
12.8.2 Homogeneous Acid Catalyst
12.8.3 Heterogeneous Alkali Catalyst
12.8.4 Heterogeneous Acid Catalyst
12.8.5 Enzyme Catalyst
12.9 Conclusion
References
13. Value Addition/Biorefinery Approaches Towards Biolubricants Production
Praveen Kumar Sharma, Suman Singh, Naziya Syed, Prashant Kumar, Shivani Chaturvedi, Ashween Deepak Nannaware, Sunil Kumar Khare and Prasant Kumar Rout
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Sources of Lubricant Production-Oleochemicals as Raw, Natural Materials, Synthetic
13.3 Production of Biolubricants
13.3.1 Castor
13.3.2 Bitter Almond
13.3.3 Jatropha curcas L.
13.3.4 Camelina
13.3.5 Ailanthus
13.3.6 Waste Oil/Fats
13.3.7 Waste Fish Oil
13.4 Important Characteristics of Bio Lubricants
13.5 Biomass Originated Biolubricants
13.6 Alternative Lubricants
13.6.1 Mineral Oil-Based Lubricants
13.6.1.1 Utilization of Mineral Oils
13.6.1.2 Mineral Oil Composition and Thermal Stability
13.6.1.3 Health and Environmental Concerns with Mineral Oils
13.6.1.4 Biodegradation and Remediation
13.6.1.5 Synthetic Lubricants
13.6.2 Uses and Advantages
13.6.2.1 Viscosity Index
13.6.2.2 Oxidation Resistance
13.6.2.3 Internal Fluid Friction or Traction Coefficient
13.6.2.4 High Film Strength
13.6.3 Types
13.6.3.1 Polyalphaolefins
13.6.3.2 Esters
13.6.3.3 Silicones
13.7 Additives Blending to Support Lubrication Quality
13.7.1 Types of Lubricants
13.7.1.1 Antioxidants
13.7.1.2 Corrosion and Rust Inhibitor
13.7.1.3 Viscosity Index Improver
13.7.1.4 Anti-Wear Additive (AW)
13.7.1.5 Extreme Pressure Additive (EP)
13.7.1.6 Detergent
13.7.1.7 Dispersants
13.7.1.8 Friction Modifiers
13.8 Various Bio-Lubricants and Their Utility
13.9 Future of Biobased Lubricants and Challenges
13.10 Conclusion
References
14. Bio-Lubricants: Economic and Environmental Acceptability
Chandreyee Saha and Subhalaxmi Pradhan
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Base Oils in Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants
14.2.1 Vegetable or Plant Oil Based EALs: Advantages and Disadvantages
14.2.2 Polyalkylene Glycol Based EALs: Advantages and Disadvantages
14.2.3 Synthetic Ester Based EALs: Advantages and Disadvantages
14.3 Economic Aspect of Using Bio-Lubricant
14.3.1 Bio-Lubricant Market Fragmentation
14.4 Environmental Acceptability of Bio-Lubricants
14.4.1 Biodegradability
14.4.1.1 Biodegradability Testing Methods
14.4.2 Bio-Lubricant Toxicity
14.4.3 Bioaccumulation
14.5 Labeling Program for Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants (EAL)
14.5.1 National Labeling Programs
14.5.1.1 Blue Angel
14.5.1.2 Swedish Standard
14.5.2 International Labelling Programs
14.5.2.1 Nordic Swan
14.5.2.2 European Eco-Label
14.5.2.3 OSPAR
14.6 Conclusion
References
Index
Back to Top
Preface
1. Prospectus of Renewable Resources for Lubricant Production
Suruchi Damle and Chandu S. Madankar
Abbreviations
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History
1.3 Background of Biolubricants
1.4 Classification of Lubricants
1.4.1 Types of Base Oil Used
1.4.1.1 Synthetic Oils
1.4.1.2 Mineral Oil
1.4.1.3 Natural Oils
1.4.2 Physical State of Lubricant
1.5 Functions of a Good Lubricant
1.6 Renewable Sources for Biolubricant Manufacture
1.6.1 Jatropha Oil
1.6.2 Karanja Oil
1.6.3 Palm Oil
1.6.4 Rapeseed Oil
1.6.5 Castor Oil
1.6.6 Sunflower Oil
1.6.7 Soyabean Oil
1.6.8 Canola Oil
1.6.9 Coconut Oil
1.7 Physicochemical Properties of Bioderived Lubricants
1.7.1 Viscosity
1.7.2 Viscosity Index
1.7.3 Flash Point
1.7.4 Pour Point
1.7.5 Oxidation Stability
1.8 Chemical Modification of Vegetable Oils for Manufacturing Biobased Lubricants
1.8.1 Esterification/Transesterification
1.8.2 Partial/Selective Hydrogenation
1.8.3 Epoxidation
1.8.4 Estolide Formation/Oligomerization
1.8.5 Hydroformylation
1.8.6 Friedel Craft Alkylation
1.8.7 Ene-Reaction
1.8.8 Radical Addition Reaction
1.8.9 Acyloxylation
1.8.10 Metathesis
1.8.11 Advanced Raw Materials and Catalysts for Biolubricant Manufacture
1.8.11.1 Sesquiterpenes as Renewable Raw Materials for Base Oils
1.8.11.2 Iso-Stearic Acids
1.8.11.3 Enzymatic Catalyzed Biolubricants
1.8.11.4 Perfluoropolyalkylethers
1.8.11.5 Fatty Acid Isomerization Catalysts
1.9 Characteristics of Biobased Lubricants
1.9.1 Carbon Chain Length
1.9.2 Types of Fatty Acids
1.9.3 Polarity
1.10 Additives
1.10.1 Antioxidants
1.10.2 Detergents and Dispersants
1.10.3 Viscosity Modifiers
1.10.4 Nanoparticles
1.10.5 Pour Point Depressants
1.10.6 Corrosion Inhibitors
1.10.7 Extreme Pressure Additives and Anti-Wear Additives
1.11 Biolubricant Applications
1.12 Biodegradability and Ecotoxicity of Biolubricants
1.13 New Technology Developed for Manufacture of Biolubricants Based on Renewable Resources
1.13.1 Waste Oil/Fats
1.13.2 Microalgae
1.13.3 Fish Oil
1.13.4 Genetically Modified Oils
1.13.5 Synthetic Esters
1.14 Merits and Demerits
1.15 Scope and Challenges
1.16 Conclusion
References
2. Extraction of Ester-Based Biolubricants from Vegetable Oils
Anupama Sharma, Subhalaxmi Pradhan, Pinki Chakraborty and Lalit Prasad
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Prospects of Vegetable Oils in Context of Lubricant
2.3 Edible Oils as Biolubricant
2.4 Nonedible Oils as Biolubricant
2.5 Physicochemical Properties of Oils to Act as Lubricant
2.5.1 Viscosity
2.5.2 Viscosity Index
2.5.3 Flash Point and Fire Point
2.5.4 Cloud Point and Pour Point
2.5.5 Oxidation Stability
2.6 Production Methodologies Involved in Ester-Based Lubricants
2.6.1 Base Catalyzed for Transesterification
2.6.2 Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification
2.6.3 Enzyme-Catalyzed Transesterification
2.7 Chemical Modification and Biodegradability of Vegetable Oils
2.7.1 Transesterification
2.7.2 Hydrogenation
2.7.3 Epoxidation
2.8 Characterization Techniques of Ester-Based Lubricants
2.9 Challenges and Shortcomings of Vegetable Oils as Biolubricants
2.10 Factors Affecting Biobased Lubricants
2.10.1 Free Fatty Acid Content in Vegetable Oil
2.10.2 Types of Alcohols
2.10.3 Types of Catalysts and Their Concentrations
2.10.4 Reaction Temperature and Rate of Reaction
2.10.5 Alcohol to Oil Ratio
2.11 Hydrolytic Stability and Low-Temperature Properties—Role of Additives or Nanomaterials in Improvement of these Properties
2.12 Economic and Environmental Acceptability of Ester-Based Lubricants
2.13 Current Research and Development for Minimizing the Challenges
2.14 Conclusion
References
3. Biobased Epoxide Lubricants
Akash Kumar, Radha Gupta, Manish Rawat and Sahil Kohli
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Broad Categorization of Lubricants
3.2.1 Lubricating Oils or Liquid Lubricants
3.2.1.1 Animal and Vegetable Oils
3.2.1.2 Mineral or Petroleum-Based Oils
3.2.1.3 Blended Oils
3.2.2 Semisolid Lubricants or Greases
3.2.3 Solid Lubricants
3.3 Biobased Lubricants
3.3.1 Advantages
3.3.1.1 Low Toxicity
3.3.1.2 Spill Remediation
3.3.1.3 Superior Lubricity
3.3.1.4 Renewable and Farmer Friendly
3.3.2 Disadvantages
3.3.2.1 Oxidative Instability
3.3.2.2 High Pour Point
3.3.2.3 Price
3.3.2.4 Difficult to Recycle
3.4 Biobased Epoxide Lubricants
3.5 Modification and Application of Biobased Epoxy Lubricant
3.5.1 Biobased Epoxide-Diamine Coatings
3.5.2 Bio Oil as well as Biochar Loadings Over Epoxy Material
3.5.3 Lubricants Derived from Castor Oil’s Fatty Acids with a Biobased Origin
3.5.4 Nanocomposites Toughened with Acrylated Epoxidized Castor Oil and Diglycidyl Ether of Bisphenol A
3.5.5 Passion Fruit as well as Moringa Oils and Their Epoxy-Based New Hydraulic Biolubricants
3.5.6 Biolubricants Originated from Enhanced Oxidation Stability of Waste Cooking Oil and Low-Temperature Properties: (2015)
3.5.7 Preparation and Tribological Studies of Green Lubricant Epoxidized Palm Stearin Methyl Ester
3.5.8 Preparation of Biolubricant Derived from Epoxy Canola Oil using Sulfated Ti-SBA-15 Catalyst
3.6 Physiochemical Characteristics of the Epoxide-Based Lubricants
3.6.1 Chemical Composition
3.6.2 Viscosity
3.6.3 Drop Point
3.6.4 Load-Carrying Capacity
3.6.5 Water Resistance
3.6.6 Corrosion Protection
3.6.7 Adhesion
3.6.8 Oxidation Stability
3.6.9 Standard for Validation
3.7 Environmental Acceptability and Economic Importance
3.7.1 Environmental Acceptability
3.7.1.1 Renewable and Sustainable
3.7.1.2 Biodegradable
3.7.1.3 Lower Toxicity
3.7.2 Economic Importance
3.7.2.1 Energy Efficiency
3.7.2.2 Reduced Maintenance and Downtime
3.7.2.3 Market Opportunities
3.8 Future Prospects
3.9 Conclusion
References
4. Biobased Hydrogenated Lubricants
Harshita Shakya, Lalit Prasad, Subhalaxmi Pradhan,
Pooja Agarwal and Diwakar Chauhan
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Different Types of Oil and Fats
4.2.1 Saturated Fats
4.2.2 Unsaturated Fats
4.2.3 Trans Fats
4.3 Processing Techniques for Oils and Fats
4.4 Microalgae Oils: Some Considerations as Lubricants
4.5 Hydrogenated and Hydrogenation Lubricants
4.5.1 Hydrogenation of Alkene
4.5.2 Use of Ru-Supported Catalysts for the Hydrotreatment of Waste Cooking Oil
4.5.3 Production of Hydrogenated Lubricants from Biomass
4.5.4 Factors Affecting Synthesis of Hydrogenated Lubricants
4.5.4.1 Feedstock Composition
4.5.4.2 Hydrogen Source and Pressure
4.5.4.3 Catalyst Type and Concentration
4.5.4.4 Temperature and Reaction Time
4.5.4.5 Posttreatment Processes
4.5.5 Applications of Hydrogenated Lubricants
4.5.5.1 Automotive Industry
4.5.5.2 Aerospace Industry
4.5.5.3 Industrial Machinery
4.5.5.4 Food Industry
4.5.5.5 Medical Industry
4.5.6 Industrial Application
4.5.6.1 Agriculture and Chemical Industries
4.5.6.2 Industries of Petroleum Refining
4.6 Lubricants
4.7 Types of Lubricants
4.7.1 Mineral Oil Lubricants
4.7.2 Synthetic Oil Lubricants
4.7.3 Biodegradable Lubricants
4.7.4 Vegetable Oil Lubricants
4.7.5 Silicone Lubricants
4.7.6 Grease Lubricants
4.7.7 Graphite Lubricants
4.7.8 Aqueous Lubricants
4.8 Biolubricant
4.8.1 Vegetable Oil-Based Biolubricants
4.8.2 Animal Fat-Based Biolubricants
4.8.3 Synthetic Ester-Based Biolubricants
4.8.4 Polyalkylene Glycol (PAG)-Based Biolubricants
4.8.5 Water-Based Biolubricants
4.8.6 Biobased Hydraulic Fluids
4.9 Physicochemical Properties of Biolubricant and Reference Lubricant
4.9.1 Hydrolytic Stability
4.9.2 Viscosity
4.9.3 Thermooxidative Stability
4.9.4 Pour Point
4.9.5 Ecotoxicity
4.9.6 Biodegradability
4.9.7 Flash Point
4.9.8 Friction and Wear Properties
4.10 Catalyst
4.10.1 Homogeneous Catalysts
4.10.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts
4.11 Production of Biolubricant Using Conventional Catalyst
4.12 Transesterification of Vegetable Oils or Animal Fats
4.13 The Used Oil as Biolubricants
4.14 Using Additives to Enhance the Lubricant’s Qualities
4.15 Applications
4.15.1 Food Processing
4.15.2 Marine Industry
4.15.3 Wind Turbines
4.15.4 Automotive Industry
4.15.5 Aerospace Industry
4.16 Use of Vegetable Oil without Modification
4.17 Reaction Pathways for Preparation of Biolubricants
4.18 Modifications
4.19 Production of Biolubricants
4.20 Biolubricants and the Environment
4.21 National Policy on Biofuels (2022 Amendment)
4.21.1 The National Policy on Biofuels has Undergone Significant Modifications, which have been Approved
4.21.2 Key Aspects of the Biofuels National Policy
4.21.3 Standards of Excellence and Ongoing Development for Biofuels
4.22 COVID-19 Impact on Biolubricants
4.22.1 Recent Development
4.22.2 Market Analysis and Size
4.22.3 Insights on the Market for Biolubricants
4.22.4 Segmentation and Market Scope
4.23 Conclusion
4.24 Future Prospects
References
5. Microbial-Based Biolubricants
Lovlish Gupta, Monika Chauhan, Ajay Kumar and Diwakar Chauhan
Abbreviations
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Developmental Methods for Microbial-Based Biolubricants
5.2.1 Microbial Feasibility for Biolubricant Production
5.2.2 Biolubricant Production by Esterification and Transesterification Processes
5.2.3 Biolubricant Production by Fermentation Processes
5.2.4 Fermentation of Microbial Biomass
5.3 Principle and Purpose of Microbial-Based Biolubricants
5.4 Physicochemical Properties
5.4.1 Viscosity and Viscosity Index
5.4.2 Lubricity
5.4.3 Pour Point
5.4.4 Stability
5.4.4.1 Oxidative Stability
5.4.4.2 Hydraulic Stability
5.5 Applications of SCO and Microbial-Based Biolubricants
5.6 Conclusion
References
6. Nanobiolubricants
Trinath Biswal and Prafulla K. Sahoo
List of Abbreviations
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biolubricants and Additive Nanoparticles from Nanobiolubricants
6.2.1 Synthesis of Biolubricants from Plant Oils through Chemical Modification
6.2.2 Impact of Biolubricants on Environment
6.2.3 Benefits and Properties of Biolubricant and Nanoadditives for the Development of Nanobiolubricants
6.2.4 Advantages of Biolubricants/Nanobiolubricants
6.2.5 Disadvantages of Biolubricants/Nanobiolubricants
6.3 Impact of Nanoparticles in Biolubricants
6.4 Kinds of Nanoparticle Additive for Preparation of Nanobiolubricants
6.4.1 Metals
6.4.2 Metal Oxide
6.4.3 Metal Sulphides
6.4.4 Carbon-Based Nanoparticles
6.4.5 Nanocomposites
6.4.6 Rare Earth-Based Materials
6.4.7 The Polyvit Nanoparticle Additive
6.5 Different Methods of Chemical Modification for Nanobiolubricants
6.5.1 Modification of Nanobiolubricants through Esterification of Vegetable Oil
6.5.2 Chemical Modification of Vegetable Oils Using Trimethylol Propane
6.5.2.1 Transesterification
6.5.2.2 Hydrolysis
6.6 Tribological Properties of the Nanobiolubricants
6.6.1 Tribological Mechanisms of Nanobiolubrication
6.6.2 Factors Influencing the Tribological Properties of Nanobiolubricants
6.6.2.1 Effect of Nanoparticle Size
6.6.2.2 Effect of Morphology of the NPs
6.6.2.3 Effect of Surface Functionalization
6.6.2.4 Effect of Concentration of the NPs
6.7 Limitations or Drawbacks of Nanolubricants
6.8 Role of Some Advanced Catalysts during the Production of Nanobiolubricants
6.9 Conclusion and Further Work
References
7. Green Nanofluids: Recent Advances and Applications
Abhishek Bhardwaj, Shashank Sharma, Kuldip Dwivedi and Kalpana Singh
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Synthesis of Nanofluids
7.2.1 One/Single Step
7.2.2 Two/Double Step
7.3 Stability of GNFs
7.4 Thermophysical Properties
7.5 Effect of Temperature
7.6 Applications of Green Nanofluids
7.6.1 Thermal Applications
7.6.2 Machining
7.6.3 Solar Panels and Solar Collector
7.6.4 Safety
7.6.5 Performance Analysis of Thermal Systems
7.7 Conclusion
References
8. Polyester-Based Biolubricants
Susmita S. Paranjpe and Chandu S. Madankar
Abbreviations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 History
8.3 Raw Materials Used for Polyester Biolubricant Production
8.3.1 Alcohols
8.3.2 Acids
8.4 Modifications of Neopentyl Polyols to Biolubricant Base Stock
8.5 Chemical Synthesis of Polyol Esters
8.5.1 Scale Up Process for Polyester Biolubricants
8.5.2 Unit Operations Involved in Synthesis of Polyester-Based Biolubricants
8.6 Enzymatic Synthesis of Polyol Esters
8.6.1 Using Palm Oil Fatty Acids
8.6.2 Using Levulinic Acid
8.6.3 Using Microbial Lipids
8.6.4 Using Rapeseed Oil
8.6.5 Using Castor Oil an Soyabean Oil
8.7 Neopentyl Polyol Esters for Biolubricants
8.7.1 Modifications with TMP
8.7.2 Modifications with PE
8.8 Characterization of Polyol Esters
8.8.1 Pyrrolysis GC-MS
8.8.2 Thermal Analysis
8.8.3 NMR Spectroscopy
8.8.4 Infrared Spectroscopy
8.9 Properties of Polyol Esters
8.9.1 Viscosity
8.9.2 Volatility
8.9.3 Pour Point and Viscosity Index
8.9.4 Tribological Properties
8.9.5 Thermal and Oxidative Stability
8.10 Applications of Polyester-Based Biolubricants
8.10.1 Aviation Turbine Oils
8.10.2 Fire Resistance
8.10.3 Refrigeration Compressor
8.10.4 Metal Working Fluids
8.11 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
9. Estolide-Based Biolubricants
Prasad Sanap, Deepak Sonawane, Rohan Thakur, Santoshi Agrawal and Amit Pratap
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Synthesis and Mechanism of Estolides
9.2.1 Concept of Capping
9.2.2 Estolides from Triglycerides
9.2.3 Estolides from Unsaturated Fatty Acids
9.2.4 Estolides from Hydroxy Fatty Acids
9.2.5 Estolides from Epoxy Fatty Acids
9.2.6 Enzymatic Catalysis
9.2.7 Purification of Estolides
9.2.8 Esterification of Estolide Fatty Acid
9.3 Structure Elucidation
9.3.1 Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy
9.3.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
9.4 Basic Physiochemical and Tribological Properties
9.4.1 Pour Point
9.4.2 Kinematic Viscosity and Viscosity Index
9.4.3 Oxidative Stability
9.4.4 Lubricity
9.4.5 Flash Point
9.5 Applications and Market Prospects
9.6 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
10. Lubricant from Waste Cooking Oil: In-Depth Analysis
Shantanu Mukherjee, Tishar Chandar, Subhalaxmi Pradhan and Lalit Prasad
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Petroleum-Based Lubricants
10.3 Prospects of Biolubricant
10.4 Need for Recycling of Waste Cooking Oil
10.5 Comparison of Waste Cooking Oil with Neat Oil
10.6 Application of Waste Cooking Oil
10.7 Purification of Waste Cooking Oil
10.9 Relationship between Structure and Physicochemical Properties
10.10 Different Modifications Reaction
10.10.1 Modification in the Carboxyl Groups
10.10.1.1 Esterification Reaction
10.10.1.2 Transesterification Reaction
10.10.1.3 Estolide
10.10.2 Modification in Fatty Acid Chain
10.10.2.1 Epoxidation Reaction
10.10.2.2 Ring Opening Reaction
10.10.2.3 Other Reaction
10.11 Additives Used in Biolubricants
10.11.1 Metal Nanoparticles as Additives
10.11.2 Nanocarbon Material
10.12 Conclusion
References
11. Managing Waste by Generation of Lubricants from Waste Oils
Adhidesh S. Kumawat
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Background and Motivation
11.1.2 Scope of the Chapter
11.1.3 Importance of Waste Oil Management
11.1.3.1 Environmental Impacts
11.1.3.2 Public Health Concerns
11.1.3.3 Resource Conservation
11.1.3.4 Circular Economy and Sustainability
11.2 Waste Oil Generation and Collection
11.2.1 Sources of Waste Oils
11.2.1.1 Automotive Sector
11.2.1.2 Industrial Sector
11.2.1.3 Marine Sector
11.2.1.4 Agriculture Sector
11.2.1.5 Aviation Sector
11.2.1.6 Railway Sector
11.2.1.7 Household and Do-It-Yourself (DIY) Activities
11.2.1.8 Commercial and Institutional Facilities
11.2.1.9 Transformer Oils
11.2.1.10 Food Industry
11.2.2 Collection Methods and Challenges
11.2.3 Waste Oil Classification and Characterization
11.3 Waste Oil Processing and Regeneration Technologies
11.3.1 Chemical Treatment
11.3.1.1 Acid-Clay Treatment
11.3.1.2 Solvent Extraction
11.3.1.3 Adsorption
11.3.2 Physical Treatment
11.3.2.1 Filtration
11.3.2.2 Centrifugation
11.3.2.3 Vacuum Distillation
11.3.3 Advanced Technologies
11.3.3.1 Membrane Filtration
11.3.3.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
11.3.3.3 Ionic Liquids
11.3.4 Comparison of Regeneration Technologies
11.4 Catalytic Materials for Waste Oil Conversion to Lubricants
11.4.1 Solid Acid Catalysts
11.4.2 Transition Metal Catalysts
11.4.3 Acid–Base Bifunctional Catalysts
11.4.4 Modified Zeolites and Mesoporous Materials
11.4.5 Hybrid and Composite Catalysts
11.4.6 Zeolite-Based Catalysts
11.4.7 Supported Catalysts
11.4.8 Nonprecious Metal Catalysts
11.4.9 Mesoporous Silica Catalysts
11.5 Future Directions and Concluding Remarks
11.5.1 Research and Development Prospects
11.5.1.1 Advanced Materials for Adsorption and Membrane Filtration
11.5.1.2 Optimization of Process Parameters
11.5.1.3 Hybrid and Integrated Processes
11.5.1.4 Green Solvents and Technologies
11.5.1.5 Life Cycle Assessment and Sustainability
11.6 Conclusion
References
12. Catalysts Used in Biolubricants Production
Pavan Kumar Gupta, Deshal Yadav, Sudipta Datta, Shweta Kumari, Shiva Kumar Saw and Gajanan Sahu
Abbreviations
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Biolubricants
12.3 Green Biolubricants
12.3.1 Castor Oil
12.3.2 Single-Cell Oils from Oleaginous Microorganisms
12.4 Properties of Biolubricants
12.4.1 Viscosity and Viscosity Index
12.4.2 Cloud Point
12.4.3 Pour Point
12.4.4 Flash Point and Fire Point
12.4.5 Oxidative Stability
12.4.6 Iodine Value
12.4.7 Corrosion
12.4.8 Total Acid Number
12.4.9 Biodegradability
12.5 Application of Biolubricants
12.5.1 Engine Oils
12.5.2 Hydraulic Oils
12.5.3 Compressor Oils
12.5.4 Metalworking Oils
12.5.5 Transmission Oils
12.5.6 Chainsaw Oils
12.5.7 Insulating Oils
12.6 Feedstocks for Biolubricants Synthesis
12.6.1 Edible Oils/Vegetable Oils
12.6.2 Nonedible Oils
12.6.3 Waste Cooking Oils
12.6.4 Microbial-Derived Oils
12.7 Chemical Modification Methods for Biolubricant Synthesis
12.7.1 Esterification/Transesterification
12.7.2 Hydrogenation
12.7.3 Epoxidation
12.7.4 Estolide Formation
12.8 Catalysts Used for Biolubricants Synthesis
12.8.1 Homogeneous Alkali Catalyst
12.8.2 Homogeneous Acid Catalyst
12.8.3 Heterogeneous Alkali Catalyst
12.8.4 Heterogeneous Acid Catalyst
12.8.5 Enzyme Catalyst
12.9 Conclusion
References
13. Value Addition/Biorefinery Approaches Towards Biolubricants Production
Praveen Kumar Sharma, Suman Singh, Naziya Syed, Prashant Kumar, Shivani Chaturvedi, Ashween Deepak Nannaware, Sunil Kumar Khare and Prasant Kumar Rout
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Sources of Lubricant Production-Oleochemicals as Raw, Natural Materials, Synthetic
13.3 Production of Biolubricants
13.3.1 Castor
13.3.2 Bitter Almond
13.3.3 Jatropha curcas L.
13.3.4 Camelina
13.3.5 Ailanthus
13.3.6 Waste Oil/Fats
13.3.7 Waste Fish Oil
13.4 Important Characteristics of Bio Lubricants
13.5 Biomass Originated Biolubricants
13.6 Alternative Lubricants
13.6.1 Mineral Oil-Based Lubricants
13.6.1.1 Utilization of Mineral Oils
13.6.1.2 Mineral Oil Composition and Thermal Stability
13.6.1.3 Health and Environmental Concerns with Mineral Oils
13.6.1.4 Biodegradation and Remediation
13.6.1.5 Synthetic Lubricants
13.6.2 Uses and Advantages
13.6.2.1 Viscosity Index
13.6.2.2 Oxidation Resistance
13.6.2.3 Internal Fluid Friction or Traction Coefficient
13.6.2.4 High Film Strength
13.6.3 Types
13.6.3.1 Polyalphaolefins
13.6.3.2 Esters
13.6.3.3 Silicones
13.7 Additives Blending to Support Lubrication Quality
13.7.1 Types of Lubricants
13.7.1.1 Antioxidants
13.7.1.2 Corrosion and Rust Inhibitor
13.7.1.3 Viscosity Index Improver
13.7.1.4 Anti-Wear Additive (AW)
13.7.1.5 Extreme Pressure Additive (EP)
13.7.1.6 Detergent
13.7.1.7 Dispersants
13.7.1.8 Friction Modifiers
13.8 Various Bio-Lubricants and Their Utility
13.9 Future of Biobased Lubricants and Challenges
13.10 Conclusion
References
14. Bio-Lubricants: Economic and Environmental Acceptability
Chandreyee Saha and Subhalaxmi Pradhan
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Base Oils in Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants
14.2.1 Vegetable or Plant Oil Based EALs: Advantages and Disadvantages
14.2.2 Polyalkylene Glycol Based EALs: Advantages and Disadvantages
14.2.3 Synthetic Ester Based EALs: Advantages and Disadvantages
14.3 Economic Aspect of Using Bio-Lubricant
14.3.1 Bio-Lubricant Market Fragmentation
14.4 Environmental Acceptability of Bio-Lubricants
14.4.1 Biodegradability
14.4.1.1 Biodegradability Testing Methods
14.4.2 Bio-Lubricant Toxicity
14.4.3 Bioaccumulation
14.5 Labeling Program for Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants (EAL)
14.5.1 National Labeling Programs
14.5.1.1 Blue Angel
14.5.1.2 Swedish Standard
14.5.2 International Labelling Programs
14.5.2.1 Nordic Swan
14.5.2.2 European Eco-Label
14.5.2.3 OSPAR
14.6 Conclusion
References
Index
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